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Kyoto Prefecture

Kyoto Prefecture

Kyōto Prefecture (京都府; Kyōto-fu) is part of the Kinki region on Honshu island, Japan. The capital is the city of Kyoto. The existence of the city of Kyoto is so important and dominant that "Kyoto" is almost never used to mean the Kyoto Prefecture. Likewise, the area outside the boundary of Kyoto city is rarely considered the part of Kyoto Prefecture except by those who live there.

History

For most of its history, the city of Kyoto was the Imperial capital of Japan. The history of the city itself can be traced back as far as the 6th century. In 544 CE, the Aoi Matsuri was held in Kyoto to pray for good harvest and good weather. Kyoto did not start out as the capital of Japan. For example, in 741, the capital was moved to a place called Kuni-kyo, between Nara and Kyoto. In 784, the capital was moved to Nagaoka-kyo located in Nagaokakyo. In 794, the capital was moved to Heian-kyo, and this was the beginning of the current-day Kyoto city. Even today, almost all of the streets, houses, stores, temples and shrines in the city of Kyoto exist where they were placed in this year. Although in 1192 real political power shifted to Kamakura, where a samurai clan established the shogunate, Kyoto still remained as the imperial capital because the powerless emperors and their court continued to be seated in the city. Imperial rule was briefly restored in 1333, but another samurai clan established a new shogunate in Kyoto three years later. In 1467, a great civil war, which is called the "Onin no Ran," took place inside Kyoto, and most of the town was burned down. Japan plunged into the age of warring feudal lords. A new strong man established the shogunate at Edo, or today's Tokyo, in 1603. Due to the revolutionary situation, imperial rule was restored again in 1868. Emperor Mutsuhito, who was now the absolute sovereign, went to stay in Tokyo next year. The imperial court never returned to Kyoto. Although many Japanese major cities were heavily bombed by US bombers during WWII, the old capital was protected from devastating bombing. After the war, the U.S. 6th Army was headquartered in Kyoto during the occupation.

Geography

Kyoto is located almost in the center of Japan. It covers an area of 4612.71 km², which is 1.2% of Japan. Kyoto is 31st by size. To the North, Kyoto faces the Sea of Japan and Fukui Prefecture. To the South, it faces Osaka Prefecture and Nara Prefecture. To the East, it faces Mie Prefecture and Siga Prefecture. To the West, it faces Hyogo Prefecture. Kyoto is separated in the middle by the Tanba Mountains. This makes the climate of Kyoto very different in the north and south.

Cities

U.S. 6th Army
- Ayabe
- Fukuchiyama
- Joyo
- Kameoka
- Kyotanabe
- Kyotango
- Kyoto
- Maizuru
- Miyazu
- Muko
- Nagaokakyo
- Uji
- Yawata

Towns and villages

These are the towns and villages in each district.

Mergers and changes of municipalities

Merger: Six Towns in Tango (1 April 2004)

The Towns of Mineyama, Omiya, Amino, Tango, Yasaka and Kumihama were merged to form the City of Kyotango. As a result of the merger, Naka, Takeno and Kumano Districts disappeared, reducing the number of districts from 12 to 9.

Absorption: Kyoto and Keihoku (1 April 2005)

The Town of Keihoku was absorbed into the City of Kyoto.

Merger: Tamba, Mizuho and Wachi (11 October 2005)

The Towns of Tanba, Mizuho and Wachi are to be merged to form the Town of Kyotamba. [http://www.town.tamba.kyoto.jp/tmw/ The Merger Council of Tamba, Mizuho and Wachi (in Japanese)]

Economy

Kyoto city is largely dependent on tourism. While northern Kyoto on the Tango Peninsula has fishing and water transportation, and midland Kyoto has agriculture and forestry.

Demographics

Culture

It is commonly said that to be a Kyoto citizen, one has to live for 10 generations and this is not a joke.

Tourism

The city of Kyoto is one of the most popular tourist spots in Japan, and many people from far and wide visit there. Along with Nara, Kyoto is a favorite location for the graduation trip of Elementary and Junior High schools. Some of the festivals held in Kyoto are Aoi Matsuri from 544, Gion Matsuri from 869, Ine Matsuri from the Edo-era, Daimonji Gozan Okuribi from 1662, and Jidai Matsuri from 1895. Every shrine and temple holds some sort of event, and many of them are open for public viewing.

Prefectural symbols

Geisha (called geiko), maiko, and temples (pagodas especially).

Miscellaneous topics

External links


- [http://www.pref.kyoto.jp/index_e.html Official Kyoto Prefecture homepage] (requires Macromedia Flash plugin)
- Category:Kansai region ko:교토 부 ja:京都府

Wikipedia:WikiProject Japanese prefectures

First, an important note for everyone to remember: A few Wikipedians have gotten together to make some suggestions about how we might organize data in articles about Japanese prefectures. These are only suggestions, things to give you focus and to get you going, and you shouldn't feel obligated in the least to follow them. But if you don't know what to write or where to begin, following the below guidelines may be helpful. Mainly, we just want you to write articles! -----

Disclaimer

This document is still an early draft.

Title

WikiProject Japanese prefectures

Scope

This WikiProject aims primarily at having a standard guidlines for Japanese prefecture pages.

Parentage

Parent wikiprojects are: WikiProject Geography. Wikiproject Countries, Wikipedia:WikiProject Subnational entities

Descendant Wikiprojects


- Wikipedia:WikiProject Japanese districts and municipalites

Similar Wikiprojects

WikiProjects with a similar scope are:
- WikiProject Chinese provinces
- WikiProject French departements
- WikiProject German districts
- WikiProject U.S. States

Participants


- synthetik
- Taku
- Araisyohei
- Curzon
- Ashibaka (Fukuoka only)
- User:MC MasterChef (Saga)

Structure

Most Japanese prefectures are named after their capital and to avoid disambiguation the article should start with the prefecture's name followed by the word prefecture. e.g. Hiroshima prefecture. As a rule for using Kanji, Hiragana and/or Katakana ensure that users without Japanese reading skills will be able to pronounce these words if e.g. Tokyo prefecture (東京都; Tōkyō-to). For more guidance see the Template below (for the time being).

Hierarchy Definition

No classification of Japanese prefectures has been defined. If you have any suggestions feel free to add start the definition. As a reference here is a good example on dividing a topic into a hierarchy.

General Strategy, Discussion forum and Status


- /General
- /Strategy
- /Status

Resources


- /Images

Template

Don't forget to replace the "_" with the name of the article being converted or the appropriate information described. For the table, replace the X's with the proper information. ------ __name of article__ (__name of prefecture Kanji__; __romaji__) is located __name of region__. Its capital is the city of __name of capital__.

History

Include:
- How and when the prefecture came to be
- Worldly events that occurred here

Geography

See Wikipedia:WikiProject Japanese districts and municipalites for naming of places.

Cities


- Put them in alphabetical order

Districts


- Put them in alphabetical order May also include:
- Climate e.g. Rainfall per Year or on Monthly basis
- Topography
- Mountains, peaks
- River and body of water
- Neighboring prefectures
- Include map if available

Economy

Include:
- Agriculture: List of produce ordered by percentage
- Major industries
- Major outputs
- SEZ if available
- Stock Exchange (where applicable e.g. Tokyo, Osaka)

Demographics

Include:
- Demographics by gender, age, profession (if available)
- List major cities ordered by size of population

Culture

Include:
- Cuisine
- Festivals

Tourism

Include:
- City sites
- Historical sites
- Natural sites
- World Heritage sites
- Transportation

Prefectural symbols

Include:
- Name of Flower, Tree, Bird, Fish, Animal with the scientific name if known. Try to write a small paragrah for each symbol.

Miscellaneous topics

Include:
- Sports teams
- Famous people from this prefecture
- List major Colleges and Universities

External links

Include:
- The official site to the prefecture if possible in English. Japanese prefectures Category:Regions of Japan Category:Regional WikiProjects

Honshu

Honshū (本州) is the largest island of Japan, called the Mainland; it is south of Hokkaido across the Tsugaru Strait, north of Shikoku across the Inland Sea, and northeast of Kyushu across the Kanmon Strait. It is the seventh largest island, and the second most populous island in the world after Java (see the list of islands by size, population). The island is roughly 1300 km long and ranges from 50 to 230 km wide, and its total area is 230,500 km², around 60% of the total area of Japan. It is larger than the island of Great Britain, and ranks between the states of Minnesota and Michigan in area. Honshu has 5450 km of coastline. Mountainous and volcanic, Honshu has frequent earthquakes (the Great Kantō earthquake heavily damaged Tokyo in September 1923); the highest peak is the active volcano Mount Fuji at 3,776 m. There are many rivers, including the Shinano River, Japan's longest. The climate is highly variable from the cool north to the subtropical south. The population is 98,352,000 (as of 1990, in 1975 it was 89,101,702), concentrated in the available lowlands, notably in the Kanto plain where 25% of the total population reside in and around Tokyo and Yokohama. Other cities include Kyoto, Osaka, Kobe, Hiroshima, Sendai, and Nagoya. The island is nominally divided into five regions and contains 34 prefectures, including metropolitan Tokyo. The regions are Chugoku (southern), Kansai (southern, above Chugoku), Chubu (central), Kanto (eastern), and Tohoku (northern). Three-fourths of Japan's main, major, and modern cities are here on Honshu, including the 23 special wards of Tokyo, Yokohama, Osaka, Nagoya, Kobe, Kyoto, Akita, Sendai, Fukushima, Niigata, and Hiroshima. Cultural centers are also present, such as Kyoto (which is both modern and cultural), Nara, and Kamakura. The island also includes important agricultural regions. Niigata is noted as an important producer of rice. The Kanto and Nobi plains produce rice and vegetables. Yamanashi is a major fruit-growing area, and Aomori is famous for its apples. A mountain range runs along the length of Honshu from end to end. In addition to Mt. Fuji, the Japanese Alps are features of Honshu. The mountains are responsible for a marked difference in climate between the eastern or southern (Pacific or Inland Sea coast) side, and the western or northern (Sea of Japan coast) side. The prefectures are:
- Chugoku — Hiroshima-ken, Okayama-ken, Shimane-ken, Tottori-ken, Yamaguchi-ken.
- Kansai — Hyogo-ken, Kyoto-fu, Mie-ken, Nara-ken, Osaka-fu, Shiga-ken, Wakayama-ken.
- Chubu — Aichi-ken, Fukui-ken, Gifu-ken, Ishikawa-ken, Nagano-ken, Niigata-ken, Toyama-ken, Shizuoka-ken, Yamanashi-ken.
- Kanto — Chiba-ken, Gunma-ken, Ibaraki-ken, Kanagawa-ken, Saitama-ken, Tochigi-ken, Tokyo-to.
- Tohoku — Akita-ken, Aomori-ken, Fukushima-ken, Iwate-ken, Miyagi-ken, Yamagata-ken. Honshu is connected to the islands of Hokkaido, Kyushu and Shikoku by tunnels or bridges. Three new bridge systems have been built across the islands of the Inland Sea between Honshu and Shikoku (Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge and the Ohnaruto Bridge; Shin-Onomichi Bridge, Innoshima Bridge, Ikuchi Bridge, Tatara Bridge, Ohmishima Bridge, Hakata-Ohshima Bridges, and the Kurushima-Kaikyo Bridge; Shimotsui-Seto Bridge, Hitsuishijima Bridge, Iwakurojima Bridge, Yoshima Bridge, Kita Bisan-Seto Bridge, and the Minami Bisan-Seto Bridge), and the Seikan Tunnel connects Honshu with Hokkaido. Category:Geography of Japan ko:혼슈 ja:本州



Aoi Matsuri

The Aoi Matsuri (葵祭り) is a festival that takes place annually on May 15 in Kyoto, Japan. It dates from the Heian period. During the festival, emissaries leave the Kyoto Imperial Palace and proceed to the Kamo Shrines. Participants wear costumes of the Heian period. A famous scene in the Tale of Genji takes place during the Aoi Matsuri. Category:Kyoto Category:Festivals in Japan ja:葵祭

Nagaokakyo, Kyoto

Nagaokakyō (長岡京市; -shi) is a city located in Kyoto, Japan. As of 2003, the city has an estimated population of 78,081 and the density of 4,070.96 persons per km². The total area is 19.18 km². The city was founded on October 1, 1972 with the incorporation of three towns. The name of city is derived from Nagaoka-kyo, the ancient Japanese capital Emperor Kammu established there from 784 until 794.

External links


- [http://www.city.nagaokakyo.kyoto.jp/ Nagaokakyo official website] in Japanese Category:Cities in Kyoto Prefecture ja:長岡京市 ko:나가오카쿄 시

1192

Events


- The Third Crusade ends in disaster. Richard I of England and Saladin negotiate visiting rights for pilgrims to come to the Holy City of Jerusalem.
- Richard I of England taken hostage by Leopold V of Austria.
- Minamoto no Yoritomo granted title of shogun, thereby officially establishing the first shogunate in the history of Japan.
- Enrico Dandolo becomes Doge of Venice.
- Marco Polo Bridge, or Lugouqiao, completed in Beijing.

Births


- September 17 - Minamoto no Sanetomo, Japanese shogun (died 1219)
- Giorgi IV Lasha, King of Georgia (died 1223)
- Stefan Radoslav, King of Serbia (died 1234)

Deaths


- April 26 - Emperor Go-Shirakawa of Japan (born 1127)
- April 28 - Conrad of Montferrat, King of Jerusalem
- May 5 - Duke Ottokar IV of Styria (born 1163)
- August 25 - Hugh III, Duke of Burgundy (born 1142)
- Kilij Arslan II, Wultan of Rüm
- Mingayl, Prince of Połock

Heads of states


- England - Richard I King of England (reigned from 1189 to 1199)
- France - Philippe II, Auguste King of France (reigned from 1180 to 1223)
- Germany - Henry VI Holy Roman Emperor (1191 to 1197) and King of Germany (1190 to 1197)
- Pope - Celestine III (pope from 1191 to 1198)
- China - Song Guangzong (宋光宗) (reigned from 1189 to 1194) Category:1192 ko:1192년

Kamakura

Kamakura can refer to:
- The city of Kamakura in Kanagawa Prefecture, Japan
- The Kamakura Shogunate period in the History of Japan
- The Kamakura family name in Japan
- Kamakura an Indie Band from the UK ja:鎌倉

1333

Events


- End of the Kamakura period and beginning of the Kemmu restoration in Japan.
- End of the reign of Emperor Kogon of Japan, first of the Northern Ashikaga Pretenders
- July 19 - Battle of Halidon Hill, last of the wars of Scottish Independence
- Cornwall gains independence from England

Births


- Kanami, Japanese noh actor and writer (died 1384)
- Blanche d'Evreux, French princess (died 1398)

Deaths


- February 7 - Nikko, Japanese priest, founder of Nichiren Shoshu buddhism (born 1246)
- September 25 - Prince Morikuni, 9th Kamakura shogun of Japan (born 1301)
- November 15 - Nichimoku, Japanese priest, the 3rd high priest of Taisekiji temple and Nichiren Shoshu (born 1260)
- William of Alnwick, Franciscan friar and theologian
- Ladislaus I of Poland
- Antipope Nicholas V
- William Donn de Burgh, 3rd Earl of Ulster (born 1312) Category:1333 ko:1333년

1467

Events


- October 29 - Battle of Brusthem: Charles the Bold defeats Liege
- Beginning of the Sengoku Period in Japan.
- Circa this year, polyalphabetic cipher invented by Leone Battista Alberti.
- Regent of Sweden Erik Axelsson Tott supports the re-election of deposed Charles VIII of Sweden to the throne.
- Pope Paul II arrested and tortured some of the abbreviators, among them was Filip Callimachus.

Births


- John Bourchier, 2nd Baron Berners, English translator (died 1553)
- Guillaume Budé, French scholar (died 1540)
- John Colet, English churchman and educational pioneer (died 1519)
- Sigismund I of Poland (died 1548)
- Krzysztof Szydlowiecki, Polish nobleman (died 1532)
- John Yonge, English ecclesiastic and diplomatist (died 1516)

Deaths


- Jöns Bengtsson, Archbishop of Sweden (born 1417)
- June 15 - Philip III, Duke of Burgundy (born 1396)
- Xalil, Khan of Kazan
- Ponhea Yat, ruler of the Khmer Empire (born 1421) Category:1467 ko:1467년

1603

Events


- March 24 - Elizabeth I of England dies and is succeeded by her cousin King James I of Scotland, uniting the crowns of Scotland and England
- April 28 – Funeral of Elizabeth I of England in Westminster Abbey
- June 29 - Original Globe Theatre burns
- July 17 or July 19 - Sir Walter Raleigh arrested for treason.
- July 25 - Coronation of James I of England. By some criteria this was the start of the modern Great Britain
- November 17 - Sir Walter Raleigh goes on trial for treason in the converted Great Hall of Winchester Castle
- December 20 - Mehmed III Sultan of the Ottoman Empire dies and is succeeded by his son Ahmed I.
- Johann Bayer's Uranometria, an atlas of the southern sky, is published.
- Tokugawa Ieyasu granted title of shogun from Emperor Go-Yozei of Japan and establishes the Edo or Tokugawa Shogunate in Edo, Japan. This ends the Azuchi-Momoyama period and begins the Edo period.
- Accademia dei Lincei founded
- Huguenot Pierre de Gua is granted royal permission to settle in North America
- Rebellion in Transylvania
- Plague in England
- English crush Irish rebellion. Hugh O'Neill, 2nd Earl of Tyrone surrenders.
- Yaqob deposed as Emperor of Ethiopia by Za Sellase, who appoints his cousin Za Dengel to replace him.

Births


- January 27 - Harbottle Grimston, English politician (died 1685)
- March 18 - Simon Bradstreet, English colonial magistrate (died 1697)
- March 18 - King John IV of Portugal (died 1656)
- April 19 - Michel le Tellier, French statesman (died 1685)
- June 17 - Joseph of Cupertino, Italian saint (d. 1663)
- July 11 - Kenelm Digby, English privateer and alchemist (died 1665)
- August 17 - Lennart Torstenson, Swedish soldier and military engineer (died 1651)
- November 16 - Augustyn Kordecki, Polish prior of the Jasna Góra Monastery (died 1673)
- December 21 - Roger Williams, English theologian and colonist (d. 1684)
- Louis Abelly, French monk and priest (died 1691)
- Adam Adami, German archbishop and diplomat
- John Ashburnham, English Member of Parliament (died 1671)
- Daniel Blagrave, English Member of Parliament (died 1668)
- Johannes Cocceius, Dutch theologian (died 1669)
- Valentin Conrart, one of the founders of the Académie française (died 1675)
- Denis Gaultier, French lutenist and composer (died 1672)
- Joseph of Cupertino, Italian saint (died 1663)
- Axel Lillie, Swedish soldier and politician (died 1662)
- Shackerley Marmion, English dramatist (died 1639)
- Aernout van der Neer, Dutch painter (died 1677)
- Adam Olearius, German scholar (died 1671)
- Alexandre de Prouville, French stateman and soldier (died 1670)
- Abel Tasman, Dutch explorer (died 1659)
- Tokugawa Yorifusa, Japanese nobleman (died 1661) See also :Category:1603 births.

Deaths


- January 15 - Catherine Carey, Chief Lady of the Bedchamber to Elizabeth I of England
- February 23 - Andrea Cesalpino, Italian philosopher, physician, and botanist (born 1519)
- March 24 - Queen Elizabeth I of England, Wales, and Ireland (born 1533)
- March 25 - Ikoma Chikamasa, Japanese warlord (born 1526)
- June 27 - Jan Dymitr Solikowski, Polish archbishop, writer, and diplomat (b. 1539)
- July 4 - Philippe de Monte, Flemish composer (b. 1521)
- September 8 - George Carey, 2nd Baron Hunsdon, English politician (b. 1547)
- November 8 - Robert Catesby, English conspirator (b. 1573)
- December 9 - William Watson, English conspirator (born 1559)
- December 10 - William Gilbert, English scientist (plague) (born 1544)
- December 13 - François Viète, French mathematician (born 1540)
- December 22 - Mehmed III, Ottoman Emperor (born 1566)
- December 27 - Thomas Cartwright, English Puritan clergyman
- Peter Binsfeld, Bishop of Trier and witch-hunter (born 1545)
- Pierre Charron, French philosopher (born 1541)
- Baldassare Donato, Italian composer and singer (born 1525)
- Edward Fenton, English navigator
- Georg Friedrich, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach (born 1539)
- Ralph Lane, English explorer (born 1530)
- Hugh Roe O'Donnell, Irish chieftain and rebel (born 1571)
- Grace O'Malley, Irish noblewoman and pirate (born 1530)
- Aleksander Ostrogski, Polish nobleman (born 1571)
- Krzysztof Mikolaj Piorun Radziwill, Polish nobleman (born 1547)
- Ikeda Tomomasa, Japanese kokujin and military commander (born 1544) See also :Category:1603 deaths. Category:1603 ko:1603년 ms:1603 simple:1603

Mutsuhito

Emperor Meiji (明治天皇, Meiji Tennō, literally 'Emperor of Enlightened Rule') (3 November 1852–30 July 1912), also known as Mutsuhito (睦仁), was the 122nd Emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. At the time of his birth in 1852, Japan was an isolated, pre-industrial, feudal country dominated by the Tokugawa Shogunate and the daimyo, who ruled over the country's more than 250 decentralized domains. By the time of his death in 1912, Japan had undergone a political, social, and industrial revolution at home (See Meiji Restoration) and emerged as one of the great powers on the world stage. Emperor Meiji was the surviving son of Emperor Kōmei by the lady-in-waiting Nakayama Yoshiko (1834–1907), the daughter of Lord Nakayama Tadayasu, sometime minister of the left (sadaijin) and a scion of the Fujiwara. He was born eight months before the arrival of Commodore Matthew Calbraith Perry and the United States squadron of "black ships" in Edo Bay and two years before the first of the so-called unequal treaties which the Tokugawa shogunate signed with Perry. Originally titled Sachi no miya (Prince Sachi), the future emperor spent most of his childhood at the Nakayama household in Kyoto, as it was customary to entrust the upbring of imperial children to prominent court families. He was formally adopted by Asako Nyōgō (later Empress Dowager Eishō), the principal consort of Emperor Kōmei, on 11 July 1860. He also received the personal name Mutsuhito, the rank of shinnō (imperial prince, and thus a potential successor to the throne) and the title of Kōtaishi (Crown Prince) on the same day. Crown Prince Mutsuhito acceded to the throne on 3 February, 1867 at the age of fourteen. Later that year, the era was changed to Meiji, or “enlightened rule”, which was later used for his posthumous name. This marked the beginning of the tradition of proclaiming one era for the entire reign of an emperor, and posthumously naming him after the era over which he ruled. On 2 September 1867, Emperor Meiji married Masako (later Haruko) (28 May 1849–19 April 1914), the third daughter of Lord Ichijō Tadaka, sometime minister of the left (sadaijin), and Lady Sukulito Sakayama. Known posthumously as Empress Shoken, she was the first imperial consort to receive the title of kōgō (literally, the emperor's wife, translated as empress consort), in several hundred years. Although she was the first Japanese empress consort to play a public role, she bore no children. However, Emperor Meiji had fifteen children by five official ladies-in-waiting. Only five of his children, a prince born to Lady Naruko (1855–1943), the daughter of Yanagiwara Mitsunaru, and four princesses born to Lady Sachiko (1867–1947), the eldest daughter of Count Sono Motosachi, lived to adulthood. They were:
- Crown Prince Yoshihito (Haru no miya Yoshihito Shinnō), 3rd son, (31 August 1879–25 December 1926) (see Emperor Taishō).
- Princess Masako (Tsune no miya Masako Naishinnō), 6th daughter, (30 September 1888–8 March 1940), titled Tsune no miya (Princess Tsune) until marriage; m. at Imperial Palace, Tokyo, 30 April 1908 Prince Takeda Tsunehisa (Takeda no miya Tsunehisa ō, 22 September 1882–23 April 1919), and had issue (offspring).
- Princess Fusako (Kane no miya Fusako Naishinnō), 7th daughter, (28 January 1890–11 August 1974), titled Kane no miya (Princess Kane) until marriage; m. at Imperial Palace, Tokyo 29 April 1909 Prince Kitashirakawa Naruhisa (Kitashirakawa no miya Naruhisa ō, 1 April 1887–2 April 1923), and had issue.
- Princess Nobuko (Fami no miya Nobuko Naishinnō), 8th daughter, (7 August 1891–3 November 1933); titled Princess Fami (Fami no miya) until marriage; m. at Imperial Palace, Tokyo 6 May 1909 Prince Asaka Yasuhiko (Asaka no miya Yasuhiko ō, 2 October 1887–13 April 1981), and had issue.
- Princess Toshiko (Yasu no miya Toshiko Naishinnō), 9th daughter, (11 May 1896–5 March 1978); titled Yasu no miya (Princess Yasu) until marriage; m. at Imperial Palace, Tokyo 18 May, 1915 Prince Higashikuni Naruhiko (Higashikuni no miya Naruhiko ô, 3 December 1887–20 January 1990), and had issue. Emperor Meiji was the symbolic leader of the Meiji Restoration, in which the Tokugawa shogunate was abolished by Imperial forces following the Boshin War. The Charter Oath, a five-point statement of the nature of the new government, abolished feudalism and proclaimed a modern democratic government for Japan. Although a parliament was formed, it had no real power, and neither did Emperor Meiji. Power had passed from the Tokugawa into the hands of those Daimyo and other samuari who had led the Restoration. Japan was thus controlled by the Genro, an oligarchy, which comprised the most powerful men of the military, political, and economic spheres. Emperor Meiji, if nothing else, showed greater political longevity than his recent predecessors, as he was the first Japanese monarch to remain on the throne past the age of 50 since the abdication of Emperor Ōgimachi in 1586. The Meiji Restoration is a source of pride for the Japanese, as it and the accompanying industrialization allowed Japan to become the preeminent power in the Pacific and a major player in the world within a generation. On the other hand, it is a source of shame, as it was the beginning of Japan's imperialism in the Pacific and prepared the nation to join the Rome-Berlin Axis in the 1930s. Emperor Meiji's role in the Restoration is debatable. He certainly did not control Japan, but how much influence he wielded is unknown. It is unlikely it will ever be clear whether he supported the Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895) or the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905). One of the few windows we have into Meiji's own feelings is his poetry, which seems to indicate a pacifist streak, or at least a man who wished war could be avoided.

External links


- [http://www.meijijingu.or.jp/english/ Meiji Shrine] (English page)

Further reading


- Emperor of Japan: Meiji and His World, 1852-1912 by Donald Keene, Columbia University Press, 2002. ISBN 023112340X Meiji, emperor of Japan Meiji, emperor of Japan Category:Japanese emperors Category:Knights of the Garter Category:Yamato line Category:Meiji Restoration ko:메이지 덴노 ja:明治天皇

World War II

, and the use of new, extremely devastating weapons such as the atom bomb. From top going counterclockwise: Allied landing on D-Day 1944, the Nuremberg Rally 1936, the Nagasaki atom bomb 1945, the Soviet flag over the Reichstag in Berlin 1945 and the Gate of Auschwitz.]] World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a mid-20th Century conflict that engulfed much of the globe and is accepted as the largest and deadliest continuous war in human history. It was the first time that a number of newly developed technologies, including nuclear weapons, were used against either military or civilian targets. World War II resulted in the direct or indirect death of anywhere from 50 to 60 million or more people, over 3% of the world population at that time. It is estimated to have cost more money and resources than all other wars combined: about 1 trillion US dollars in 1945 (adjusted for inflation; roughly 10.5 trillion in 2005), not including subsequent reconstruction [http://www.historychannel.com/worldwartwo/?page=triumph5]. The outcomes of the war, including new technology and changes to the world's geopolitical, cultural and economic arrangement, were unprecedented. The conflict began by most Western accounts on September 1 1939 with the German invasion of Poland (the Pacific war is taken to have started on July 7 1937 with the Japanese attack on China) and lasted until mid-1945, involving many of the world's countries. Virtually all countries that participated in World War I were involved in World War II. Britain, France, Australia and New Zealand declared war on Germany on September 3, 1939 and Canada followed on September 10, 1939. The United States entered the conflict in December of 1941 after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor.

Summary

Attributed in varying degrees to the Treaty of Versailles, the Great Depression, and the rise in nationalism, racism, fascism, National socialism, Japanese imperialism, and militarism, the causes of the war are a matter of debate. The war was fought between the Axis Powers and the Allies. The Axis initially consisted of an alliance between Germany and Italy, which later expanded to include Japan and Eastern European countries such as Romania and Bulgaria. Some of the nations that Germany conquered sent military forces, particularly to the Eastern front. Among the expeditionary forces that joined Germany were forces from Vichy France, The Netherlands, Belgium, Spain (though Spain was itself a neutral country) and armies of Russians and Ukrainians under the command of the general Andrey Vlasov. The Allies were initially the United Kingdom, including the Commonwealth, France and Poland, later joined by the USSR, the United States of America and China. Fighting occurred across the Atlantic Ocean, in Western and Eastern Europe, in the Mediterranean Sea, Africa, the Middle East, in the Pacific and South East Asia, and it continued in China. In Europe, the war ended with the surrender of Germany on 8 May 1945 (V-E and Victory Days), but continued in Asia until Japan surrendered on 15 August 1945 (V-J Day). At least 50 million people died as a result of the war. This figure includes acts of genocide such as the Holocaust and General Ishii Shiro's Unit 731 experiments in Pingfan, incredibly bloody battles in Europe and the Pacific Ocean, and massive bombings of cities, including the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan and the firebombing of Dresden (and even worse but less known) of Pforzheim in Germany. Few areas of the world were unaffected; the war involved the "home front" and bombing of civilians to a new degree. Atomic weapons, jet aircraft, rockets and radar, the blitzkrieg, or "lightning war", the massive use of tanks, submarines, torpedo bombers and destroyer/tanker formations, are only a few of many wartime inventions and new tactics that changed the face of the conflict. Post–World War II Europe was partitioned into Western and Soviet spheres of influence, the former undergoing economic reconstruction under the Marshall Plan and the latter becoming satellite states of the Soviet Union. This partition was, however, informal; rather than coming to terms about the spheres of influence, the relationship between the victors steadily deteriorated, and the military lines of demarcation finally became the de facto country boundaries. Western Europe largely aligned as NATO, and Eastern Europe largely as the Warsaw pact countries, alliances which were fundamental to the ensuing Cold War. In Asia, the United States' military occupation of Japan led to Japan's democratisation. China's civil war continued through and after the war, resulting eventually in the establishment of the People's Republic of China. The war sparked a wave of independence for colonies of European powers, who were exhausted from fighting the war. There was a fundamental shift in power from Western Europe to the new superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union, though there were few actual boundary changes. __TOC__

Causes

People's Republic of China]] Main articles: Causes of World War II, Events preceding World War II in Europe, Events preceding World War II in Asia The causes of World War II are naturally a debated subject, but a common view, particularly among the allies in the early post-war years, ties them to the expansionism of Germany and Japan: Germany had lost wealth, power and status following the First World War and the expansion was to make Germany great again.
- In Germany there was a strong desire to escape the bonds of the World War I Treaty of Versailles, and eventually, Hitler and the Nazis assumed control of the country. They led Germany through a chain of events: rearmament, reoccupation of the Rhineland, a merger with Austria (Anschluss), incorporation of Czechoslovakia and finally the invasion of Poland.
- In Asia, Japan's efforts to become a world power and the rise of militarist leadership (in the 1930s the government in Japan was undermined as militarists rose to power and de facto gained totalitarian control) led to conflicts with first China and later the United States. Japan also sought to secure additional natural resources, such as oil and iron ore, due in part to the lack of natural resources on Japan's own home islands.

Participants

iron ore and Joseph Stalin, during the Yalta Conference in 1945]] Main article: Participants in World War II The belligerents of the Second World War are usually considered to belong to either of the two blocs: the Axis and the Allies. A number of smaller countries participated in the war, though often under occupation or as proxies of one of the large powers. The Axis Powers consisted primarily of Germany, Italy, and Japan, which split the Earth into three spheres of influence under the Tripartite Pact of 1940, and vowed to defend one another against aggression. This replaced the German-Japanese Anti-Comintern Pact of 1936 that Italy had joined in 1937. Spain's fascist government led by Francisco Franco was a great asset in trade to the Axis powers during the war. A number of smaller countries were counted among the Axis powers. Among these were Bulgaria, Romania, Hungary, Slovenia, and arguably Finland. Among the Allied powers, the so-called Big Three were the United Kingdom (from September 3 1939), the Soviet Union (from June 1941) and the United States (from December 1941). China had been at war with Japan since 1937. 1937 On August 23, 1939, just before the war broke out, the USSR and Germany signed the non-aggression Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, which, among other things, divided Eastern Europe into regions of influence. But Germany violated the pact when it invaded the USSR in 1941. Similarly, the US had the (much older) unilateral Monroe Doctrine, which stated that Europe should not interfere in the Americas and in turn the U.S. would not interfere in European affairs (including wars). But the U.S. entered the war after first Japan and then Germany declared war on it and launched direct attacks on its navy, shipping and other interests. Many other countries, including Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Denmark, France, Greece, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, the Philippines, Poland, Thailand and Yugoslavia are also considered important Allies, although some of these were conquered and occupied by Axis forces or even officially joined the Axis as a result of coercion. Countries that attempted to remain neutral in the conflict were often viewed with suspicion by the participants, and often pressured to make contributions to the most influential power in their neighbourhood. Sovereignty was often difficult to maintain as many countries that did not directly participate in the conflict nevertheless held vested interests in seeing a particular side prevail. For example, neutral Switzerland was generally considered to be "Allied-friendly", while neutral Spain was considered "Axis-friendly", despite the fact that neither country openly proclaimed any alliances. Such situations allowed neutral countries to become hotbeds of espionage. It is important to note as well, that Sweden's participation in the war was negligable due to specific relations with the German state at the time.

A debated starting date

On which date World War II started is a debated subject; historians do not all agree on which event signified the start of the war. The most common date used is 1 September 1939, marking the German invasion of Poland which resulted in the British and French declarations of war two days later. Other candidates include the Japanese invasion of China on 7 July1937 (the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War) or the entry of Hitler's armies to Prague in March 1939. Some historians argue that the Italian occupation of Ethiopia (The Second Italo-Abyssinian War) which lasted seven months in 1935-1936 was the actual start of World War II. There are some historians that argue the war started on the start of the Manchurian Incident on 18 September 1931.

Chronology 1937-45

Main articles: European Theatre of World War II, Mediterranean Theatre of World War II, Pacific War, End of World War II in Europe

1937: Second Sino-Japanese War

On 7 July 1937, Japan, after occupying northeastern China as Manchuria in 1931, launched another attack against China near Beijing (see Marco Polo Bridge Incident). Rather than retreating swiftly as in engagements with the Japanese before, the Chinese government declared war on Japan, marking the official start of the Second Sino-Japanese War, which would soon become part of the World War. In December 1937, the capital, Nanking (now Nanjing), fell and the Chinese government moved its seat to Chongqing for the rest of the war. Surprised by the unanticipated level of resistance from China, the Japanese forces committed brutal atrocities against civilians and POWs when Nanking was occupied (see Nanjing Massacre), killing up to 200,000 civilians within a month. In Europe, the peace was uneasy, with Germany annexing Austria and Czechoslovakia, and taking apparent aim at Poland.

1939: War breaks out in Europe

Poland]] Main articles: Polish September Campaign, Phony War War broke out in Poland on 1 September 1939, with the German invasion of Poland. France and the United Kingdom honoured their defensive alliance of March 1939 by declaring war two days later on 3 September. Australia and New Zealand declared war the same day, although through the quirk of the international date line, New Zealand then Australia were the first to declare war on Germany. Canada followed a week later, on 10 September. Only partly mobilised and with troops inadequately equipped with largely outdated weapons (which included large numbers of horse-mounted cavalry), and without the anticipated support of French or British forces, Poland unsurprisingly fared poorly against the Wehrmacht's superior numbers and "blitzkrieg" tactics. In accordance with the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, the Soviet Red Army invaded Poland from the east on 17 September. Hours later, the Polish government escaped to Romania. The last Polish Army unit was defeated on 6 October. As Poland fell, the British and French were either caught unaware of German intentions or had not allowed themselves to believe that Germany would invade Poland. Germany paused to regroup during a period that would be termed "the Phony War", or the "Sitzkrieg", which lasted until May 1940. Polish forces continued to fight the Axis powers after their country fell. A prominent example was the assistance of Polish pilots during the Battle of Britain. The Soviet Union, due to its treaty relationship with Nazi Germany, did not fight the fascists: Stalin was happy to have those he felt were his natural and true enemies—the capitalist West and Nazi Germany—fight each other. Indeed, the Soviets had their partisans in the U.S., working alongside Nazi sympathisers, advocate that the U.S. remain neutral in the war, a position that the majority of Americans, reluctant to join in what they saw as "someone else's war," welcomed. Battle of Britain There were isolated engagements during the "Phony War" or "Sitzkrieg" period, including the sinking of HMS Royal Oak in the anchorage at Scapa Flow and Luftwaffe bombings of the naval bases at Rosyth and Scapa Flow. The Kriegsmarine pocket battleship Admiral Graf Spee was sunk in South America after the battle of the River Plate. The Tripartite Pact was signed between Germany, Italy, and Japan on 27 September, 1940, formalising their alignment as the "Axis Powers". The Soviet Union invaded Finland on 30 November 1939, beginning the Winter War, which lasted until March 1940 with Finland ceding territory to the Soviet Union.

1940: The war spreads

Winter War Main Articles: Norwegian Campaign, Battle of France, Battle of Britain, North African Campaign, Balkans Campaign Europe: Germany invaded Denmark and Norway on 9 April 1940, in Operation Weserübung, ostensibly to counter the threat of an Allied invasion from the region. Heavy fighting ensued on land and at sea in Norway. British, French and Polish forces landed to support the Norwegians at Namsos, Åndalsnes and Narvik, with most success at the latter. By late June, all Allied forces had been evacuated, and the Norwegian Army surrendered. France, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg were invaded on 10 May, ending the Phony War and beginning the Battle of France. The Allies had hoped to establish a static continuous front and were ill-prepared for the German Blitzkrieg tactics. In the first phase of the invasion, Operation Yellow, the Wehrmacht's Panzergruppe von Kleist bypassed the Maginot Line and split the Allies in two by driving to the English Channel. Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands fell quickly against the attack of Army Group B, and the British Expeditionary Force, trapped in the north, was evacuated at Dunkirk in Operation Dynamo. German forces then invaded France itself, in Operation Red, advancing behind the Maginot Line and near the coast. While some units from the French army were still fighting, a number of top politicians and military leaders decided that it would be better to surrender given the situation; France signed an armistice with Germany on June 22 1940, leading to the establishment of the Vichy France puppet government in the unoccupied part of France. In June 1940 the Soviet Union occupied Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia, and annexed Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina from Romania. Not having secured a rapid peace with the United Kingdom, Germany began preparations to invade with the Battle of Britain. Fighter aircraft fought overhead for months as the Luftwaffe and Royal Air Force fought for control of Britain's skies. The Luftwaffe initially targeted RAF Fighter Command but turned to terror bombing London. The Luftwaffe was not successful, and Operation Sealion, the proposed invasion of the British Isles, was abandoned. Similar efforts were made, though at sea, in the Battle of the Atlantic. In a long-running campaign, German U-Boats attempted to deprive the British Isles of necessary Lend Lease cargo from the United States. The U-Boats reduced shipments considerably; however, the United Kingdom refused to seek peace, with Prime Minister Winston Churchill stating that "We shall never surrender". President Roosevelt announced a shift in the American stance from neutrality to "non-belligerency". The Mediterranean: Italy invaded Greece on 28 October 1940, from bases in Albania. Although outnumbered, Greek forces successfully repelled the Italian attacks and launched a full-scale counter-attack deep into Albania. By mid-December they had liberated one-fourth of Albania. The North African Campaign began in 1940; Italian forces in Libya attacked British forces in Egypt. The aim was to make Egypt an Italian possession, especially the vital Suez Canal. British, Indian and Australian forces counter-attacked (see Operation Compass), but this offensive stopped in 1941 when much of the Commonwealth forces were transferred to Greece to defend it from German attack. However, German forces (known later as the Afrika Korps) under General Erwin Rommel landed in Libya and renewed the assault on Egypt. Italian troops invaded and captured British Somaliland in August 1940. On the other hand, the Italian declaration of war challenged the British supremacy of this sea, a supremacy hinged on Gibraltar, Malta and Alexandria. While Gibraltar was never under direct attack, Alexandria and to a deadlier degree Malta were hit repetitively by Axis attacks, the thrusts towards the Suez Canal for the former, and the 1940/42 Blitz for the latter, which made the island of Malta the most heavily bombed place on earth. Asia: In 1940, Japan occupied French Indochina (Vietnam) upon agreement with the Vichy Government, despite local Free French, and joined Axis powers Germany and Italy. These actions intensified Japan's conflict with the United States and the United Kingdom, which reacted with an oil boycott.

1941: The war becomes global

Main articles: Eastern Front, Continuation War, Attack on Pearl Harbor Europe: Attack on Pearl Harbor Yugoslavia's government succumbed to the pressure of Italy and Germany and signed the Tripartite Treaty on 25 March 1941. This was followed by anti-Axis demonstrations in the country and a coup which overthrew the government and replaced it with a pro-Allied one on 27 March 1941. Hitler's forces then invaded Greece and Yugoslavia on 6 April 1941. Hitler reluctantly sent forces to assist Mussolini's forces in their attempt to capture Greece, principally to prevent a British build-up on Germany's strategic southern flank. With these new troops the Axis succeeded in driving the Greek forces back. British troops were diverted from North Africa to assist with the defence but failed to prevent Greece's capture. On 20 May 1941, the Battle of Crete began when elite German paratroopers and glider-borne mountain troops and some 1300 aeroplanes launched a massive airborne invasion of the Greek island of Crete. Crete was defended by an group of about 43,000 Greek, New Zealand, Australian and British troops, not all of them fully equipped. The Germans attacked the island simultaneously on the three airfields. Their invasion on two of the airfields failed, but they successfully captured one, which allowed them to reinforce their position by landing reinforcements. After a week it was decided that so many German troops had been flown in that there was no way to defeat them, and about 17,000 Commonwealth soldiers were evacuated. However, over 10,000 Greek and 500 Commonwealth troops remained at large and caused problems for the German occupiers. The Germans may have suffered well over 15,000 casualties. So heavy were the losses that Hiler decided never to launch an airborne invasion again. General Kurt Student would later say, "Crete was the grave of the German parachutists". The Allies, on the other hand, came to the conclusion that every major invasion should be supported by paratroopers. Operation Barbarossa, the German invasion of the Soviet Union, the largest invasion in history, commenced on 22 June 1941. The "Great Patriotic War" (Russian: Великая Отечественная Война, Velikaya Otechestvennaya Voyna) had begun with surprise attacks by German panzer armies, which encircled and destroyed much of the Soviet's western military, capturing or killing hundreds of thousands of men. Soviet forces came to fight a war of scorched earth, withdrawing into the steppe of Russia to acquire time and stretch the German army. Industries were dismantled and withdrawn to the Ural mountains for reassembly. German armies pursued a three-pronged advance against Leningrad (modern-day St Petersburg), Moscow, and the Caucasus. Having pushed to occupy Moscow before winter, German forces were delayed into the Soviet Winter. Soviet counter-attacks defeated them within sight of Moscow's spires, and a rout was only narrowly avoided. Some historians identify this as the "turning point" in the Allies' war against Germany; others identify the capitulation of the German Sixth Army outside Stalingrad (modern-day Volgograd) in 1943. The Continuation War between Finland and the Soviet Union began with Soviet air attacks shortly after the beginning of Operation Barbarossa, on 25 June, and ended with an armistice in 1944. The Soviet Union was joined in the war by the United Kingdom but not by the United States. The Mediterranean again: In June 1941, Allied forces invaded Syria and Lebanon, capturing Damascus on 17 June (see Syria-Lebanon campaign). Meanwhile, Rommel's forces advanced rapidly eastward, laying siege to the vital seaport of Tobruk. Australian and other Allied troops in the city resisted all until relieved, but a renewed Axis offensive captured the city and drove the Eighth Army back to a line at El Alamein. Asia: The Sino-Japanese War El Alamein Main article: Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945) A war had begun in Asia years before World War II started in Europe. Japan had invaded China in 1931. By 1937, war had broken out as the Japanese sought control of China. Roosevelt signed an unpublished (secret) executive order in May 1940 allowing U.S. military personnel to resign from the service so that they could participate in a covert operation in China: the American Volunteer Group, also known as Chennault's Flying Tigers. Over a seven-month period, Chennault's Flying Tigers destroyed an estimated 600 Japanese aircraft, sunk numerous Japanese ships, and stalled the Japanese invasion of Burma. With the United States and other countries cutting exports to Japan, particularly fuel oil, Japan planned a strike on Pearl Harbor on Sunday, 7 December 1941, to cripple the U.S. Pacific Fleet while consolidating oil fields in Southeast Asia. It is hard to determine whether the Japanese intended to release an advance declaration of war, however, as means of coordinating secret directives with public communication, particularly during a weekend in the U.S., were limited. Despite what warning signs remained, the attack on Pearl Harbor achieved military surprise and dealt severe damage to the American Fleet's battleships, though the primary targets, aircraft carriers, remained safely at sea. The next day, Japanese forces arrived at Hong Kong, which later led to the surrender of the British colony on Christmas Day (known to locals as 'Black Christmas'), as well as launching numerous attacks on British and American outposts across the Pacific. Asia: The United States enters the war
Main article: Attack on Pearl Harbor Attack on Pearl Harbor On 7 December 1941, Japanese warplanes commanded by Vice Admiral Chuichi Nagumo carried out a surprise air raid on Pearl Harbor, the largest U.S. naval base in the Pacific. The Japanese forces met little resistance and devastated the harbour. This attack resulted in 8 battleships either sunk or damaged, 3 light cruisers and 3 destroyers sunk as well as damage to some auxiliaries and 343 aircraft either damaged or destroyed. However the attack failed to strike targets that could have been crippling losses to the US Pacific Fleet such as the aircraft carriers which were out at sea at the time of the attack or the base's ship fuel storage and repair facilities. The survival of these assets have led many to consider this attack a catastrophic long term strategic blunder for Japan. The following day, the United States declared war on Japan. Simultaneously to the attack on Pearl Harbor, Japan also attacked U.S. air bases in the Philippines. Immediately following these attacks, Japan invaded the Philippines and also the British Colonies of Hong Kong, Malaya, Borneo and Burma with the intention of seizing the oilfields of the Dutch East Indies. In a matter of months, all these territories and more fell to the Japanese onslaught. The British island fortress of Singapore was captured in what Churchill considered one of the most humiliating British defeats of all time. Following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, Germany declared war on the United States on 11 December 1941, even though it was not obliged to do so under the Tripartite Pact of 1940. Hitler made the declaration in the hopes that Japan would support him by attacking the Soviet Union. Japan did not oblige him, and this diplomatic move proved a catastrophic blunder which gave President Franklin D. Roosevelt the pretext needed for the United States joining the fight in Europe with full commitment and with no meaningful opposition from Congress. Some historians mark this moment as another major turning point of the war with Hitler provoking a grand alliance of powerful nations, most prominently the UK, the USA and the USSR, who could wage powerful offensives on both East and West simultaneously.

1942: Deadlock

Franklin D. Roosevelt] Main articles: Battle of Stalingrad, Operation Torch Europe: In 1942, an aborted German offensive was launched towards the Caucasus to secure oil fields, and German armies reached Stalingrad. The siege of Stalingrad continued for many months, with vicious urban warfare leading to high casualties on both sides. At night, the Soviet forces were resupplied from the east bank of the Volga, and the Wehrmacht forces were eventually ground down; especially after Hitler diverted the armour of the Sixth Army to the Caucasus. In November a Soviet offensive encircled Sixth Army. By early February 1943, it was clear that the Sixth Army would have to surrender. Hitler promoted General Friedrich Paulus, who was in charge of the German forces, to Field Marshal in the vain hope it would deter him from surrendering. It did not, and he surrendered completely on 2 February. The results were the destruction of the city, millions of casualties, and the collapse of Germany's Sixth Army as a viable fighting force. Nazi Propaganda Minister Joseph Goebbels responded with his Sportpalast speech to the German people. Some historians cite this as the European war's "turning point". The Mediterranean: Sportpalast speech Sportpalast speech (432nd Squadron) damaged by flak somewhere over Algeria during the North African Campaign in 1942.]] The First Battle of El Alamein took place between 1 July and 27 July 1942. German forces had advanced to the last defensible point before Alexandria and the Suez Canal. However, they had outrun their supplies, and a Commonwealth defence stopped their thrusts. The Second Battle of El Alamein occurred between October 23 and November 3, 1942, after Bernard Montgomery had replaced Claude Auchinleck as commander of the Commonwealth forces, now known as the Eighth Army. Erwin Rommel, German commander of the Afrika Corps, known as the "Desert Fox", was absent for this battle because he was recovering from jaundice back in Europe. Commonwealth forces took the offensive, and although they lost more tanks than the Germans began the battle with, Montgomery was ultimately triumphant. The western Allies had the advantage of being close to their supplies during the battle. In addition, Rommel was getting little or no help by this time from the struggling Luftwaffe, which was now more tasked with defending Western European air space, and fighting the Soviet Union, than providing Rommel with support in North Africa. After the German defeat at El Alamein, Rommel made a successful strategic withdrawal to Tunisia. During the Arcadia Conference from December 1941 to January 1942, the Allied leaders concluded that it was essential to keep Russia in the war. This consideration led to the overall strategy "Germany First"; i.e. giving priority of knocking out Germany before Japan. This decision resulted in a long debate as to where and when to open a Second Front against Germany. The American Chiefs of Staff favoured a cross-channel (France) amphibious operation in the summer. The British opposed this because of insufficient landing craft and logistical problems. It was also thought that American forces were in a process of expansion, organisation and exercise, not capable yet of fighting an experienced German army. Only if Russia collapsed would they approve a main landing in France. Churchill put forward the idea of a small invasion in Norway or landings in French North Africa. The plan for landings in Africa was approved in July 1942. Operation Torch was headed by General Dwight Eisenhower. The aim of Torch was to gain control of Morocco and Algiers through simultaneous landings at Casablanca, Oran and Algiers, followed a few days later with a landing at Bône, the gateway to Tunisia. The operation was launched on 8 November 1942. The first wave was almost entirely American troops, because it was thought that the French would react more favourably to Americans than British. It was hoped that the local forces of Vichy France would put up no resistance and submit to the authority of Free French General Henri Giraud. In fact, resistance was stronger than expected but still sporadic. In Algiers, 400 members of the French resistance captured much of the city, though it was retaken before Allied forces could arrive. The Vichy commander, Admiral Darlan, negotiated an end to hostilities, against orders from the Vichy government. He was allowed to retain local control by the Allies, to the annoyance of Free French leaders. Hitler invaded and occupied Vichy France in response. Rommel's Afrika Corps was not being supplied adequately because of the loss of transport shipments caused by Allied—mostly British—navies and air forces in the Mediterranean. This lack of supplies and air support destroyed any chance of a large German offensive in Africa. Ultimately, German and Italian forces were caught in the pincers of a twin advance from Algeria and Libya. The withdrawing Germans continued to put up stiff defence, and Rommel defeated the American forces decisively at the Battle of Kasserine Pass before finishing his strategic withdrawal back to the meagre German supply chain. Inevitably, advancing from both the east and west, the Allies finally defeated the German Afrika Corps on May 13 1943. Some 250,000 Axis soldiers were taken prisoner. Asia: 1943]] In May 1942, a naval attack on Port Moresby, New Guinea, was thwarted by Allied navies in the Battle of the Coral Sea. Had the capture of Port Moresby succeeded, the Japanese Navy would have been within striking range of Australia. This was both the first successful opposition to Japanese plans and the first naval battle fought only between aircraft carriers. The two sides suffered roughly equal losses. A month later the invasion of Midway Island was prevented by decoding secret Japanese messages, and hence alerted U.S. naval leaders that Midway was the Japanese target. American pilots sunk four Japanese carriers, which the Japanese industry could not replace swiftly. The loss of many planes and skilled pilots (many of them took part in Pearl Harbor) was also difficult to redress. The Americans lost one carrier and fewer planes. It was a complete victory for the Americans, and the Japanese Navy was now on the defensive. However, in July an overland attack on Port Moresby was led along the rugged Kokoda Track. This was met with Australian militia, many of them very young and undertrained, fighting a stubborn rearguard action until the arrival of Australian regulars returning from action in North Africa, Greece and the Middle East. But amazingly, the outnumbered and untrained Australian 39th battalion defeated the 5,000-strong Japanese army. This was one of the most significant victories in Australian military history. Even prior to the American entry to the war, the Allied leaders had agreed that priority should be given to the defeat of Nazi Germany. Nonetheless, U.S. forces began to attack captured territories, beginning with Guadalcanal Island, against a bitter and determined Japanese defence. On 7 August 1942, the United States assaulted the island. In late August and early September, while battle raged on Guadalcanal, an amphibious Japanese attack on the eastern tip of New Guinea was met by Australian forces at Milne Bay, and the Japanese land forces suffered their first conclusive defeat. On Guadalcanal, the Japanese resistance failed in February 1943. A substantial element of the Asian campaign was played out, starting in 1942, in the Aleutian Islands. For detailed information, see World War II: Aleutian Islands.

1943: The war turns

World War II: Aleutian Islands Main articles: Battle of Kursk, Italian Campaign Europe: Russia: After the victory at Stalingrad, the Red Army launched a series of eight offensives during the winter, many concentrated along the Don basin near Stalingrad, which resulted in initial gains until German forces were able to take advantage of the weakened condition of the Red Army and regain the territory it lost. In July, the Wehrmacht launched a much-delayed offensive against the Soviet Union at Kursk. Their intentions were known by the Soviets, and the Battle of Kursk ended in a Soviet counteroffensive that threw the German Army back. Italy is invaded: Newly captured North Africa was used as a springboard for the invasion of Sicily on 10 July 1943. On 25 July Mussolini was fired from office by the King of Italy, allowing a new government to take power. Having captured Sicily, the Allies invaded mainland Italy on 3 September 1943. Italy surrendered on 8 September, but German forces continued to fight. Allied forces advanced north but were stalled for the winter at the Gustav Line, until they broke through in the Battle of Monte Cassino. Rome was captured on 5 June 1944. Mid-1943 brought the fifth and final German Sutjeska offensive against the Yugoslav Partisans before the invasion and subsequent capitulation of Italy, the other major occupying force in Yugoslavia. Partisans, Louisville (CA-28), Portland (CA-33) and Columbia (CL-56) into Lingayen Gulf, Philippines, January 1945.]] Asia: (1943–45) Australian and U.S. forces then undertook the prolonged campaign to retake the occupied parts of the Solomon Islands, New Guinea and the Dutch East Indies, experiencing some of the toughest resistance of the war. The rest of the Solomon Islands were retaken in 1943, New Britain and New Ireland in 1944. As the Philippines were being retaken in late 1944, the Battle of Leyte Gulf raged, arguably the largest naval battle in history. The last major offensive in the south-west Pacific Area was the Borneo campaign of mid-1945, which was aimed at further isolating the remaining Japanese forces in South East Asia and securing the release of Allied POWs. Allied submarines and aircraft also attacked Japanese merchant shipping, depriving Japan's industry of the raw materials it had gone to war to obtain. The effectiveness of this stranglehold increased as U.S. Marines captured islands closer to the Japanese mainland. The Nationalist Kuomintang Army, under Chiang Kai-shek, and the Communist Chinese Army, under Mao Zedong, both opposed the Japanese occupation of China but never truly allied against the Japanese. Conflict between Nationalist and Communist forces emerged long before the war; it continued after and, to an extent, even during the war, though more implicitly. The Japanese had captured most of Burma, severing the Burma Road by which the Western Allies had been supplying the Chinese Nationalists. This forced the Allies to create a large sustained airlift, known as "flying the Hump". U.S. led and trained Chinese divisions, a British division and a few thousand U.S. ground troops cleared the Japanese forces from northern Burma so that the Ledo Road could be built to replace the Burma Road. Further south the main Japanese army in the theatre were fought to a standstill on the Burma-India frontier by the British Fourteenth Army (the "Forgotten Army"), which then counter-attacked, and having recaptured all of Burma was planning attacks towards Malaya when the war ended.

1944: The beginning of the end

British Fourteenth Army, 6 June 1944]] Main articles: Battle of Normandy, Operation Bagration, Operation Market Garden, Battle of the Bulge On "D-Day" (6 June 1944) the western Allies invaded German-held Normandy in a pre-dawn amphibious assault spearheaded by American (82nd and 101st), British (6th) and Canadian paratroops, opening the "second front" against Germany. The allies suffered large casualties during the beach assault. German artillery batteries pounded the beaches. But the airborne divisions took out the guns from the rear, enabling the seaborne troops to break inland. Hedgerows aided the defending German units, and for months the Allies measured progress in hundreds of yards and bloody rifle fights. An Allied breakout was effected at St.-Lô, and the most powerful German force in France, the Seventh Army, was almost completely destroyed in the Falaise pocket while counter-attacking. Allied forces stationed in Italy invaded the French Riviera on 15 August and linked up with forces from Normandy. The clandestine French Resistance in Paris rose against the Germans on 19 August, and a French division under