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Jayuya, Puerto Rico

Jayuya, Puerto Rico

Jayuya is a municipality of Puerto Rico located in the mountainous center of the island. It is named after the Taino Cacique Hayuya.

History

The town of Jayuya was founded in 1911, but history traces people living in the region as far back as 1878. At that time, a small community was established there, separated from the larger cities of the coasts with little to no communication. Near the end of the 19th Century, the town focused on the production of coffee, which greatly boosted the local economy. In 1911, the town was officially declared a municipality with a population of more than 9,000. In 1950, the town was the setting of what was known as the Jayuya Uprising, where nationalists started a revolt against the Government of the United States led by Pedro Albizu Campos. Jayuya has a great tourist appeal due to its natural environment. Some of the most visited sites are the Cemí Museum, the Nemesio Canales Museum, Hacienda Gripiñas, the Taíno Tomb, and the Toro Negro Forest. Jayuya is also the setting of Cerro de Punta, the island's highest peak.

See also


- Puerto Rico
- Cerro de Punta
- The Jayuya Uprising Category:Municipalities of Puerto Rico Category:Jayuya, Puerto Rico

Municipality

A municipality or "general-purpose district" (compare with: "special-purpose district") is an administrative local area generally composed of a clearly defined territory and commonly referring to a city, town, or village government. Municipalities are not necessarily the same as townships. In most countries, this is the smallest administrative subdivision that has its own democratically elected representative leadership. In several European countries, municipalities as second level entities are referred to as communes.

Municipalities as second level entities


- In Australia, a municipality is a city, or shire and is a subdivision of a state
- In Austria, a municipality (Gemeinde) is part of a district (Bezirk), which is in turn part of a state (Bundesland).
- In Belgium, a municipality (gemeente/commune) is part of a province (provincie/province)
- In Bosnia and Herzegovina, a municipality (općina or opština) is
  - part of a canton (kanton)
  - a subdivision (grouped in regions)
- In Brazil, a municipality (município) is part of a state (estado)
- In Canada, a municipality is a city, town, township, county, or regional municipality which has been incorporated by statute by the legislatures of the Provinces and territories of Canada. It is also a specific designation for certain municipalities in Quebec and Ontario.
- In Chile, a municipality (comuna) is part of a province (provincia)
- In Croatia, a municipality (općina) is part of a county (županija)
- In Denmark, a municipality (kommune) is part of a county (amt)
- In Finland, a municipality (kunta/kommun) is part of a province (lääni/län)
- In France, a municipality (commune) is part of a department (département)
- In Germany, a municipality (Gemeinde) is part of a district (Kreis). Larger entities of the same level are named town (Stadt).
- In Greece, a municipality is either an urban demoi or rural koinotetes which is then part of a prefecture (nomos) and then a larger region known as a periphery.
- In Italy, a municipality (comune) is part of a province (provincia) which is part of a region (regione).
- In Japan, any government other than the Japanese national government is called a municipality.
- In Mexico, a municipality (municipio) is a subdivision of a state (estado) and a borogh (delegación) is a subdivision of the Federal District (see municipalities of Mexico and Boroughs of the Mexican Federal District).
- In the Netherlands, a municipality (gemeente) is part of a province (provincie).
- Every part of mainland New Zealand is part of either a "city" (mostly urban) or a "district" (mostly rural). The term "municipality" has become rare in New Zealand since about 1979 and has no legal status.
- In Norway, a municipality (kommune) is part of a county (fylke)
- In the Philippines, a municipality (bayan) is part of a province (lalawigan) and is composed of barangays.
- In Poland, a municipality (commune) (gmina) is a part of a county (powiat).
- In Portugal, a municipality (município) is subdivision of a district (distritos).
- In Puerto Rico, a municipality (municipio) is a city. Each municipality has an elected mayor.
- In Romania, a municipality (municipiu) is a town or a city ranked by law at this level. See Municipality in Romania for more information.
- In Serbia, a municipality (opština) is part of a county (okrug)
- In South Africa, municipalities are subdivisions of a province, and are ranked by size. In descending order: metropolitan, district, local.
- In Sweden, a municipality (kommun) is part of a county (län).
- In Switzerland, a municipality (commune/Gemeinde/comune) is part of a canton (canton/Kanton/cantone) and defined by cantonal law.
- In the United States, the entities that have status as a municipality vary from state to state. Cities, towns, boroughs, or villages are common terms for municipalities. Townships, counties, and parishes are not generally considered to be municipalities, although there are exceptions. In some states, towns have a non-municipal status similar to townships.

First level entities and other forms of municipalities


- In the People's Republic of China, a municipality (直辖市 in pinyin: zhíxiéshì) is a city with equal status to a province: Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai, and Chongqing (see Municipality of China)
- In the Republic of China on Taiwan, a municipality (直轄市 in Wade-Giles: chi-hsia-shih) is a city with equal status to a province: Taipei and Kaohsiung. (see Municipality of China)
- In Portugal, a municipality (município/concelho) is the primary local administrative unit. Although it is a part of a district (distrito) for certain national administrative purposes, the municipality is not subordinate to the district and decentralization is doing away with the districts. A municipality contains one or more freguesias.
- In Puerto Rico, there are no first order administrative divisions, and the municipalities (municipio) serves as second-order, but first level, administrative divisions.
- In Montenegro, a municipality (opština) is the topmost regional division
- Municipalities of Libya, some very large.
- In Slovenia, a municipality (občina) is the primary local administrative unit. There are 193 of them, 11 of which have a special "Urban" status with additional autonomy.
- In Spain, a municipality (município) is the primary local administrative unit. It is a part of a province (provincia) for all national administrative purposes. A municipality contains one or more parroquias. In the Galiza region, the municipalities are called concellos.

See also


- :Category:Lists of municipalities (with lists for countries)
- Municipal government
- Mayor
- Council-manager government
- Mayor-council government
- Special-purpose district
- Subnational entity
- Political science
- Muni
- Washington city government
- Political subdivisions of New York State
- Municipal services Category:Subnational entities ja:政令指定都市

Puerto Rico

:This article is about the caribbean territory of Puerto Rico. For the German board game, see Puerto Rico (game) The Commonwealth of Puerto Rico (Spanish: Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico) is a self-governing unincorporated organized territory of the United States located east of the Dominican Republic in the northeastern Caribbean. Puerto Rico, the smallest of the Greater Antilles, includes the main island of Puerto Rico and a number of smaller islands and keys, including Mona, Vieques, and Culebra.

History

Main article: History of Puerto Rico When Europeans first arrived, the island of Puerto Rico was inhabited by a group of Arawak Indians known as Taínos. The Taínos called the island "Borikén." The first European contact was made by Christopher Columbus during his second voyage to the Antilles, on November 19, 1493. Some say that Puerto Rico was not discovered by Columbus but by Martín Alonso Pinzón in 1492 when he separated from Columbus and went exploring on his own. The Pinzón family was given one year by the Spanish court to start a settlement in Puerto Rico which would give them a claim to the island. However, they did not succeed. Originally named San Juan Bautista, in honor of Saint John the Baptist, the island ultimately took the name of Puerto Rico (Rich Port), while the name San Juan is now delegated to its capital and largest city. Spanish conquistador Juan Ponce de León became the island's first governor to take office, while Vicente Yáñez Pinzón was the first appointed governor, though he never arrived on the island. The island was soon colonized and briefly became an important stronghold and port for the Spanish empire in the Caribbean. However, colonial emphasis during the late 17th–18th centuries focused on the more prosperous mainland territories, leaving the island impoverished of settlers. Concerned about threats from its European enemies, over the centuries various forts and walls were built to protect the port of San Juan. Fortresses such as La Fortaleza, El Castillo San Felipe del Morro and El Castillo de San Cristóbal were built. The French, Dutch and English made attempts to capture Puerto Rico, but failed to wrest long-term occupancy of the island. In 1809, while Napoleon occupied the majority of the Spanish peninsula, a populist assembly based in Cadiz recognized Puerto Rico as an overseas province of Spain with the right to send representatives to the Spanish Court. The representative Ramon Power y Giralt died soon after arriving in Spain; and constitutional reforms were reversed when autocratic monarchy was restored. Nineteenth century reforms augmented the population and economy, and expanded the local character of the island. After the rapid gains of independence by the South and Central American states in the first part of the century, Puerto Rico and Cuba became the sole New World remnants of the large Spanish empire. Toward the end of the 19th century, poverty and political estrangement with Spain led to a small but significant uprising in 1868 known as "El Grito de Lares." The Puerto Rican goal was to achieve personal freedom, the abolition of slavery, and full self-government. The uprising was easily and quickly crushed. Leaders of this independence movement included Ramón Emeterio Betances, considered the "father" of the Puerto Rican nation, and other political figures such as Segundo Ruiz Belvis. Later, another political stronghold was the autonomist movement originated by Roman Baldorioty de Castro and, toward the end of the century, by Luis Muñoz Rivera. In 1897, Muñoz Rivera and others persuaded the liberal Spanish government to agree to a Charters of Autonomy for Cuba and Puerto Rico. The following year, Puerto Rico's first, but short-lived, autonomous government was organized. The charter maintained a governor appointed by Spain, who held the power to annul any legislative decision he disagreed with, and a partially elected parliamentary structure. On July 25, 1898 at the outbreak of the Spanish–American War, Puerto Rico, being a colony of Spain, was invaded by the United States of America with a landing at Guánica. Spain was forced to cede Puerto Rico, along with Cuba and the Phillippines, to the United States under the Treaty of Paris (1898) . The twentieth century began under the military regime of the United States with officials, including the governor, appointed by the President of the United States. In 1917, the Jones-Shafroth Act approved by the United States Congress granted Puerto Ricans U.S. citizenship. Natural disasters and the Great Depression impoverished the island. Some political leaders demanded change; some, like Pedro Albizu Campos, would lead a nationalist (The Puerto Rican Nationalist Party) movement in favor of independence. He would eventually die by what he claimed was a conspiracy set in place by the U.S. Federal Government. Muñoz Rivera initially favored independence, but saw a severe decline of the Puerto Rican economy, as well as growing violence and uprisings, at the hands of the U.S. government and opted to create the "commonwealth" option as an eventual stepping stone to full independence. Puerto Rican Nationalist Party]] Change in the nature of governance of the island came about during the latter years of the Roosevelt–Truman administrations, as a form of compromise spearheaded by Luis Muñoz Marín and others, and which culminated with the appointment by President Harry S. Truman in 1946 of the first Puerto Rican-born governor, Jesús T. Piñero. In 1948, the United States granted the right to democratically elect the governor of Puerto Rico. Luis Muñoz Marín would become the first elected governor of Puerto Rico. On November 1, 1950, Puerto Rican nationalists Griselio Torresola and Oscar Collazo attempted to assassinate President Harry S. Truman. In response, Truman allowed for a genuinely democratic referendum in Puerto Rico to determine the status of its relationship to the United States . Puerto Rico adopted its own constitution in 1952 which adopted a commonwealth relationship with the United States . During the 1950s Puerto Rico experienced a rapid industrialization, with such projects as Operation Bootstrap which aimed to industrialize Puerto Rico's economy from agriculture-based into manufacturing-based. Present-day Puerto Rico has become a major tourist destination and a leading pharmaceutical and manufacturing center. Still, Puerto Rico continues to struggle to define its political status. A number of plebiscites have been held in recent decades to decide whether Puerto Rico should request independence, enhanced commonwealth status, or statehood. Narrow victories by commonwealth supporters over statehood advocates have not yielded substantial changes in the relationship between the island and the United States. However, commonwealth--which once had the support of well over 75% of the voting population--now has less than 50% support. This decrease has been met with an expanded support for statehood for the island, with both groups holding an equal share of support. The independence ideal, once the second leading ideology on the island in the general elections, is now supported by 3–6% of the voting population.

Geography

Main article: Geography of Puerto Rico Geography of Puerto Rico The archipelago of Puerto Rico consists of the main island of Puerto Rico and various smaller islands, including Vieques, Culebra, Mona, Desecheo, and Caja de Muertos. Of the latter five, only Culebra and Vieques are inhabited year-round. Mona is uninhabited through large parts of the year except for employees of the Puerto Rico Department of Natural Resources. The mainland measures some 170 km by 60 km (105 miles by 35 miles). It has a population of approximately 4 million. The capital city, San Juan, is located on the main island's north coast and has a population of approximately 430,000. The mainland is mostly mountainous with coastal areas in the north and south regions of the island. The main mountainous range is called "La Cordillera Central" (The Central Range). The highest elevation point of Puerto Rico, Cerro de Punta (1338 meters), is located in this range. Another important peak is El Yunque with a maximum elevation of 1,065m. Some beautiful beaches on the western side of the island are Jobos Beach, Maria's Beach, Domes Beach and Sandy Beach. Puerto Rico has nine lakes (none of them natural) and more than 50 rivers. Most of these rivers are born in the "Cordillera Central." The rivers in the northern region of the island are bigger and with higher flow capacity than those of the south region.

Geology

El Yunque Puerto Rico is composed of Cretaceous to Eocene volcanic and plutonic rocks, which are overlain by younger Oligocene to recent carbonates and other sedimentary rocks. Most of the caverns and karst topography on the island occurs in the northern Oligocene to recent carbonates. The oldest rocks are approximately 190 million years old (Jurassic) and are located at Sierra Bermeja in the southwest part of the island. These rocks may represent part of the oceanic crust and are believed to come from the Pacific Ocean realm. Puerto Rico lies at the boundary between the Caribbean and North America plates. This means that it is currently being deformed by the tectonic stresses caused by the interaction of these plates. These stresses may cause earthquakes and tsunamis. These seismic events, along with landslides, represent some of the most dangerous geologic hazards in the island and in the northeastern Caribbean.

Politics

Main article: Politics of Puerto Rico The island government is based on the U.S. Republic system composed of 3 branches: the Executive branch headed by the Governor, the Legislative branch consisting of a bicameral Legislative Assembly (a Senate and a House of Representatives) and the Judicial branch. The legal system is based on a mix of the Civil Law and the Common Law systems. The governor as well as legislators are elected by popular vote every four years. Members of the Judicial branch are appointed by the governor and approved by the senate. The island is divided into 78 municipalities, which elect a mayor and municipal assembly. Puerto Rico's formal Chief of State is the President of the United States; however, most of the executive functions are carried out by the governor. The current Constitution of Puerto Rico was approved through referendum in 1952, and ratified by the U.S. Congress, which maintains ultimate sovereignty over Puerto Rico. Under the 1952 constitution, Puerto Rico is a territorial commonwealth of the United States and is permitted a high degree of autonomy. Still, Puerto Rico does not have voting representation in the U.S. Congress; neither does it have any delegates to the U.S. Electoral College, and therefore Puerto Rican citizens have no representation in the U.S. Presidential elections. A non-voting Resident Commissioner is elected by the residents of Puerto Rico to the U.S. Congress. Residents of the island do not pay federal income tax on income from island sources, although they do pay a hefty tax to local authorities. Further, island residents pay social security taxes and other federal taxes. Also, they haved limited access to several key federal programs. As U.S. citizens, Puerto Ricans are subject to military service and most federal laws. Puerto Rico's three major political parties are most distinguished by their position on the political status of Puerto Rico. The Popular Democratic Party (PPD) seeks to maintain or improve the current Commonwealth status, the New Progressive Party (PNP) seeks to fully incorporate Puerto Rico as a U.S. state, and the Puerto Rican Independence Party (PIP) seeks national independence. Three Puerto Rico status referenda have been held since the ratification of the 1952 constitution. Support for the commonwealth has eroded from over 60% in 1967 to about 48%, while support for statehood has grown to about 46%. In the 1998 referendum independence received 2.5%, but the "None of the above" option received more than 50%. Pro-statehooders claim that this option garnered the majority of votes due to a joint effort by commonwealth and pro-independence supporters to stop statehood. Puerto Ricans living on the island are not counted among the Hispanics residing in the U.S.; in fact, they are not included in the U.S. population count at all, although all Puerto Ricans are U.S. citizens. Puerto Rico also is not included in the Current Population Surveys that the Census Bureau conducts to update its decennial census.

U.S. Commonwealth

Although Puerto Rico is, politically speaking, a Commonwealth of the United States, Puerto Ricans and people from other nations refer to Puerto Rico as a país, the Spanish word for country or nation. This is a very common and accepted international status given to all dependent territories, also called dependent "states" by the UN. This is highlighted by the fact, for example, that Puerto Rico is an independent country in the sports world, even having their own Olympic teams. In the jargon of international law, an inhabited territory that is not a first-order administrative division, but rather forms an external, non-sovereign territory governed by a sovereign one, is both a "state" and a "country". But none of these cases —neither U.S. "states" nor dependent "states/countries"—are considered sovereign international entities.

Economy

Main article: Economy of Puerto Rico The economic conditions in Puerto Rico have improved dramatically since the Great Depression due to external investment in capital-intensive industry such as petrochemicals pharmaceuticals and technology. Once the beneficiary of special tax treatment from the U.S. government, today local industries must compete with those in more economically depressed parts of the world where wages are not subject to U.S. minimum wage legislation. In recent years, some U.S. and foreign owned factories have moved to lower wage countries in Latin America and Asia. Puerto Rico is subject to U.S. trade laws and restrictions. Puerto Ricans had a per capita GDP estimate of $17,700 for 2004 , which demonstrates a growth over the $14,412. level measured in the 2002 Current Population Survey by the Puerto Rican Legal Defense and Education Fund . In that survey, Puerto Ricans have a 48.2% poverty rate. By comparison, the poorest State of the Union, Mississippi, had a median level of $21,587, according to the U.S. Census Bureau’s Current Population Survey, 2002 to 2004 Annual Social and Economic Supplements .

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Puerto Rico Puerto Rico has sometimes been said to have a "White" majority, an extinct Amerindian population, persons of mixed ancestry, Africans and a small Asian minority. However, broad US census categories have disallowed the mixed ancestry of most Puerto Ricans to be officially acknowledged; and most on the island tend to agree that what is "Puerto Rican" is generally a mixture between Amerindian, African, and Spanish genetic heritage. According to a 2003 study funded by the U.S. National Science Foundation, 61 percent of all Puerto Ricans have Amerindian mitochondrial DNA, 27 percent have African and 12 percent Caucasian . During the 1800s hundreds of Corsican, French, and Portuguese, along with a large numbers of immigrants from the Canary Islands and numerous Spanish loyalists from Spain's former colonies in South America, arrived in Puerto Rico. Other settlers have included Irish, Scots, Germans, and many others who were granted land from Spain during the Cedula de Gracias of 1815, which allowed European Catholics to settle in the island with a certain amount of free land. Emigration has been a major part of Puerto Rico's recent history as well. Starting in the Post-WWII period, due to poverty, cheap air fare, and promotion by the island government, waves of Puerto Ricans moved to the mainland United States, particularly New York City. This continued even as Puerto Rico's economy improved and the birth rate declined. Emigration continues at the present time, and this, combined with Puerto Rico's greatly lowered birth rate, suggests that the island's population will age rapidly and start to decline sometime within the next couple of decades. According to the 2000 US Census, 95% of the population consider themselves of Puerto Rican descent (regardless of race or skin color), making Puerto Rico one of the most culturally homogenous societies in the world . Since its colonization, Puerto Rico has become the permanent home of over 100,000 legal residents who immigrated from not only Spain, but from Latin America as well. Cubans, Dominicans, Colombians, Panamanians, Curacaoans, and Santomeños can also be accounted for as settlers. The variety of surnames which exist in Puerto Rico suggests widespread immigration to the island from many regions.

Languages

The official languages of the island are Spanish and English. Spanish is the primary language in business and government; English is taught as a second language in schools.

Religion

The Roman Catholic religion has been historically dominant and is the religion of the majority of Puerto Ricans, although the presence of Protestant, Latter-Day Saint (Mormon) and Jehovah's Witnesses denominations has increased under American sovereignty, making modern Puerto Rico an interconfessional country. Taíno religious practices have to a degree been rediscovered/reinvented by a few handfuls of advocates. Kongo belief, known as Mayombe or Palo, has been around since the days of the arrival of enslaved Africans. Although, Santeria (stronger and more organized in Cuba) is practiced by some, Palo Mayombe (an African belief system which originated with Bantu tribes brought into Puerto Rico as slaves for over 500 years) finds more adherence among individuals who practice some form of African Traditional Religion. See also Protestants in Puerto Rico.

Culture

Main article: Culture of Puerto Rico

Education

Education in Puerto Rico is divided into four levels. These are elementary, intermediate, high school and the university level. Students can attend either a public or a private school. Public schools are run by the state while private schools are run by private institutions, predominantly the Roman Catholic Church. The only public university system in Puerto Rico is the University of Puerto Rico.

Sports

Main article:Sports in Puerto Rico Puerto Rico currently has its own Olympic team and participates in the Summer Olympics and the Winter Olympics, as well as international representation in many other sporting events including the Pan-American Games, the Central American Games, and the Caribbean World Series. Further, it has its own representatives in beauty pageants including Miss World and Miss Universe. Boxing, basketball, and baseball are popular. They have their own professional baseball leagues, though San Juan hosted the Montréal Expos for several series in 2003 and 2004 before they moved to Washington, D.C. and became the Washington Nationals. On September 29, 2005 Major League Baseball announced that opening rounds of the newly formed World Baseball Classic, a 16-country tournament featuring top players, would be held in San Juan in March 2006.

Municipalities (Municipios)

San Juan For a complete list of the municipalities of Puerto Rico see: List of municipalities in Puerto Rico As a commonwealth associated with the United States, Puerto Rico does not have any first-order administrative divisions as defined by the U.S. Government, but there are 78 municipalities at the second level. Mona Island is not a municipality, but part of the municipality of Mayagüez). Each municipality has a mayor and a municipal legislature elected for a 4 year term. The first municipality (back then called town) of Puerto Rico, San Juan, was founded in 1521. In the 16th century two more municipalities were established, Coamo (1570) and San Germán (1570). Three more municipalities were established in the 17th century. These were Arecibo (1614), Aguada (1692) and Ponce (1692). The 18th and 19th century saw an increase in settlement in Puerto Rico. 30 municipalities were established in the 18th century and 34 more were established in the 19th century. Only six municipalities were founded in the 20th century. The last municipality was Florida, founded in 1971 . The municipalities are further subdivided into barrios, and those into sectors.

See also


- Art in Puerto Rico
- Black history in Puerto Rico
- Chinese Puerto Rican
- Corsican immigration to Puerto Rico
- Cuisine of Puerto Rico
- Holidays in Puerto Rico
- Irish immigration to Puerto Rico
- Literature of Puerto Rico
- List of universities and colleges in Puerto Rico
- List of movies set in Puerto Rico
- List of Taínos
- List of Puerto Rican phrases, words and slangs
- Military history of Puerto Rico
- Music of Puerto Rico
- Pop culture in Puerto Rico
- Puerto Rican immigration to Hawaii
- Sports in Puerto Rico
- Taínos See also: List of Puerto Rico-related topics

External links

Official sites


- [http://www.bdepr.org Economic Development Bank]
- [http://www.gdb-pur.com Government Development Bank]
- [http://www.gobierno.pr/ Government of Puerto Rico]
- [http://www.fortaleza.gobierno.pr/ Governor]
- [http://www.icp.gobierno.pr Institute of Puerto Rican Culture]
- [http://www.ati.gobierno.pr Integrated Transport Alternative]
- [http://www.meetpuertorico.com/ Puerto Rico Convention Bureau]
- [http://www.camaradepuertorico.org/ Puerto Rico House of Representatives]
- [http://www.senadopr.us/ Puerto Rico Senate]
- [http://www.prteconline.com/ Puerto Rico Technoecnomic Corridor]
- [http://www.gotopuertorico.com Puerto Rico Tourism Company]
- [http://www.fomentocomercialpr.com Puerto Rico Trade]
- [http://www.house.gov/fortuno/ Resident Commissioner (US House)]
- [http://www.ceepur.org/ State Electoral Commission (CEEPUR)]
- [http://www.upr.edu University of Puerto Rico]
- [http://www.pridco.com Puerto Rico Industrial Development Company]

References

# [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/diplomacy/spain/sp1898.htm Treaty of Paris (1898)]. # Act of July 3, 1950, Ch. 446, 64 Stat. 319. # [http://www.lexjuris.com/lexprcont.htm Constitution of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico - in Spanish (original)]. # [http://topuertorico.org/constitu.shtml Constitution of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico - in English (translation)]. # [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/rq.html CIA - The World Factbook -- Puerto Rico]. # [http://www.prldef.org/ PRLDEF]. # [http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/income/medincsizeandstate.html U.S. Census - Median Family Income]. # [http://www.indiancountry.com/content.cfm?id=1065462184&print=yes Indian Country Today, October 6, 2003]. # [http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/QTTable?_bm=y&-geo_id=04000US72&-qr_name=DEC_2000_SF1_U_DP1&-ds_name=DEC_2000_SF1_U Puerto Rico DP-1 Profile of General Demographics Characteristics : 2000]. # [http://www.linktopr.com/fundacion.html LinktoPR.com - Fundación de los Pueblos]. # [http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/8/ares8.htm General Assembly Resolutions 8th Session United Nations].

Notes

[1] See http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/8/ares8.htm Category:Former Spanish colonies Category:Insular areas of the United States Category:Puerto Rico ko:푸에르토리코 ja:プエルトリコ simple:Puerto Rico

Hayuya

Hayuya (born c. 1470's) was the Taino Cacique (Chief) who governed the area in Puerto Rico which bears his name (now spelled "Jayuya"). Jayuya When the Spaniards arrived in "Borinken" (Puerto Rico), they were greeted with open arms by the Tainos, who lived a peaceful and organized life. This made it easy for Juan Ponce de Leon and his men to conquer the island. Before the Spaniards arrived, the Tainos had a form of government. Each region had a tribe headed by a Cacique. Some of the Caciques, like Hayuya, were more powerful than others. They all, however, responded to the "Supreme Cacique", which at that time was Agueybana. The area that Hayuya dominated is considered to be the "birth place" of the Taino culture in the island. Soon, the Spaniards started to enslave the natives. On February 1511. Agueybana II and Urayoan (The Añasco Cacique), and their men drowned Diego Salcedo. They watched Salcedo's body to see if he resucited, when he didn't, the Tainos realized that the Spaniards where not "Gods" and thus, the Tainos became rebellious. According to the "Cronicals of the Indias" which are found in Seville, Spain, Hayuya lived and governed the area which is now named after him, in the interior central part of Puerto Rico. On September 7, 1513 Juan Ponce de Leon, who was appointed governor by the "Spanish Crown", sent troops headed by Alonso Niño and Alonso de Mendoza, to "squash" the rebellious Tainos. When they arrived at Hayuya's village, they proceded to raid and murder the inhabitants. They burned the village to the ground. The Tainos that survived were taken prisoners and some were made to work the mines as slaves and the others were sent to Spain where they were sold as slaves for 145 "pesos". Eventually, the Tainos died from the cruelity of working in the mines or from the smallpox epidemic. The "National Indigenous Festival" (Festival Nacional Indígena) which honors the memory of Hayuya and the Taino heritage is celebrated annually on November 24 in the town of Jayuya. There is a monument of Hayuya, the only one of its kind to be dedicated to a Taino Cacique, located in Jayuya's Cultural Center next to a Taino tomb. It was sculpted by the renowned Puerto Rican artist Tomas Batista in 1969. Hayuya is also represented in the town's "Coat of Arms".

See also


- List of famous Puerto Ricans
- List of Tainos
- Agueybana
- Arasibo
- Jumacao
- Tibes Indigenous Ceremonial Center Hayuya Hayuya Category:Indigenous peoples of the Caribbean

1911

1911 (MCMXI) was a common year starting on Sunday (click on link for calendar).

Events

January-June


- January 1 - Northern Territory is separated from South Australia
- January 3 - In London, in what becomes known as the Siege of Sidney Street, the Metropolitan Police and the Scots Guards engage in a shootout with a criminal gang of Latvian anarchists held up in a building in the East End.
- January 10 - Major Jimmie Erickson takes the first aerial photograph (over San Diego, California).
- January 18 - Eugene B. Ely lands on the deck of the USS Pennsylvania stationed in San Francisco harbor, marking the first time an aircraft landed on a ship
- January 21 - First Monte Carlo races
- January 26 - Glenn H. Curtiss flies the first successful seaplane.
- January 30 - The destroyer USS Terry makes the first airplane rescue at sea saving the life of James McCurdy 10 miles from Havana, Cuba.
- March 1 - Jose Ordonez is elected President of Uruguay.
- March 8 - International Women's Day is celebrated for the first time
- March 24 - Denmark abolishes death penalty and flogging
- March 25 - Fire at the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory in New York City - 145 dead
- March 29 - United States Army formally adopts the M1911 pistol as its standard sidearm, thus giving the gun its 1911 designation.
- April 6 - Dedë Gjon Luli Dedvukaj, Leader of the Malësori Albanians raises the Albanian flag in the town of Tuzi, Montenegro for the first time after Gjergj Kastrioti (Skenderbeg).
- April 13 - Mexican revolution - Rebels take Aqua Prieta besides US border. Government troops take the town back April 17 when the rebel leader "Red" Lopez is drunk
- April 19 - Francisco Madero's troops besiege Ciudad Juarez but general Juan J. Navarro refuses his demand of surrender
- May 11 - Futurist exhibition in Milan was the first of efforts by the group to make its theories concrete
- May 8 - Pancho Villa launches an attack against government troops in Ciudad Juarez without Madero's permission. Government troops surrender May 10
- May 15 - The United States Supreme Court declares Standard Oil to be an "unreasonable" monopoly under the Sherman Antitrust Act and orders the company to be dissolved.
- May 17 - Porfirio Diaz is convinced to resign but he does not do it officially
- May 21 - Peace treaty between rebels of Madero and government troops in Ciudad Juarez
- May 23 - Dedication ceremony for the New York Public Library.
- May 24 - Government troops fire at anti-Diaz demonstrators in Mexico City - about 200 dead (official claim only 40)
- May 25 - Diaz signs his resignation and leaves for Veracruz. May 31 he leaves for exile in France
- May 30 - The first Indianapolis 500-mile auto race is run. The winner is Ray Harroun in the Marmon 'Wasp'.
- June 7 - Francisco Madero arrives in Mexico City just after a local earthquake
- June 14 - A national seamen's strike begins in Britain.
- June 15 - IBM incorporated as Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company in New York
- June 16 - A 772 gram stony meteorite struck earth in Columbia County, Wisconsin near the village of Kilbourn damaging a barn.
- June 22- Coronation of George V of the United Kingdom and Mary of Teck at Westminster Abbey, London.

July-October


- July 1 - German Warship Panther in the Moroccan port of Agadir triggers Agadir Crisis escalating pre-WW1 tensions. Subsequent climbdown rallies German militancy.
- July 24 - Hiram Bingham finds Machu Picchu
- August 8 - Public Law 62-5 sets the number of representatives in the United States House of Representatives at 435. The law will take effect in 1913.
- August 9 - Raunds, Northamptonshire records a temperature of 98°F (36.7°C), the highest UK temperature until 1990.
- August 10 - British MPs vote to receive salaries for the first time
- August 22 - Theft of Mona Lisa discovered in Louvre (Vincenzo Peruggia is captured and the painting returned 1913)
- September 7 - French poet Guillaume Apollinaire is arrested and put in jail on suspicion of stealing the Mona Lisa from the Louvre museum. He is later released.
- September 11 - Middle Tennessee State University is founded in Murfreesboro, Tennessee as Middle Tennessee Normal School.
- September 20 - The liner RMS Olympic, sister ship to the RMS Titanic, collides with Royal Navy cruiser HMS Hawke outside Southampton, England.
- September 29 - French navy ship Liberte explodes anchored in Toulon
- October 6 - The British Seafarers' Union was formed in Southampton in England.
- October 10 - Wuchang Uprising leads to the founding of the Republic of China.
- October 10 - Robert Laird Borden becomes Canada's eighth prime minister.
- October 16 - Felipe Diaz, nephew of Porfirio Diaz, occupies the port of Veracruz as a sign of rebellion against Madero
- October 18 - revolutionaries under Sun Yat-sen overthrew China's Manchu dynasty.
- October 28 - Foundation of The Rosicrucian Fellowship's international headquarters at Mount Ecclesia, Oceanside (California); It had been preceded by its formal constitution in August 8 1909 at Seattle (Washington).

November-December


- November 3 - Chevrolet officially enters the automobile market to compete with the Ford Model T.
- November 4 - Selandia launched in Denmark, the first ocean going diesel Ship.
- November 5 - After declaring war on Turkey on September 29, 1911, Italy annexes Tripoli and Cyrenaica (this act was confirmed by an act of the Italian Parliament on February 25, 1912).
- November 11 - A record cold snap hits the United States midwest. Many cities break record highs and lows on same day. (see The 11/11/11 cold wave).
- November 15 - Prince Louis Honoré Charles Antoine Grimaldi of Monaco, heir to the throne and later Reigning Prince Louis II of Monaco officially recognizes his illegitimate daughter Charlotte Louise Juliette Louvet as Princess Charlotte of Monaco.
- November 16 - Earthquake in Swab, South Germany
- December 11 - Coronation in New Delhi of George V of the United Kingdom and Mary of Teck as Emperor of India and Empress consort respectively
- December 12 - The capital of India was shifted to New Delhi from Calcutta (now Kolkata).
- December 14 - Roald Amundsen's expedition reaches the South Pole
- December 21 - First robbery of the Bonnot gang
- December 29 - Sun Yat-sen becomes the first President of the Republic of China

Unknown dates


- First Solvay Congress - meeting of physicists
- University of Iceland founded
- University of Wales, Bangor moved to new buildings.
- 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica published.
- End of Qing Dynasty in China.
- Rutherford deduces the existence of a compact atomic nucleus from scattering experiments.
- Onnes discovers superconductivity.

Births

January-March


- January 1 - Hank Greenberg, baseball player (d. 1986)
- January 3 - John Sturges, American film director (d. 1982)
- January 5 - Jean-Pierre Aumont, French actor (d. 2001)
- January 7 - Butterfly McQueen, American actress (d. 1995)
- January 11 - Zenko Suzuki, Prime Minister of Japan (d. 2004)
- January 13 - Joh Bjelke-Petersen, Premier of Queensland (d. 2005)
- January 17 - George Joseph Stigler, American economist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1991)
- January 22 - Bruno Kreisky, Chancellor of Austria (d. 1990)
- January 24 - C. L. Moore, American writer (d. 1987)
- January 26 - Polykarp Kusch, German-born physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1993)
- January 29 - Peter von Siemens, German industrialist (d. 1986)
- January 30 - Roy Eldridge, American jazz musician (d. 1989)
- February 5 - Jussi Björling, Swedish tenor (d. 1960)
- February 6 - Ronald Reagan, United States President (d. 2004)
- February 8 - Elizabeth Bishop, American poet (d. 1979)
- February 12 - Stephen H. Sholes, American recording executive (d. 1968)
- February 19 - Merle Oberon, British actress (d. 1979)
- March 3 - Jean Harlow, American actress (d. 1937)
- March 8 - Alan Hovhaness, American composer (d. 2000)
- March 13 - L. Ron Hubbard, American author (d. 1986)
- March 16 - Josef Mengele, Nazi Germany war criminal (d. 1979)
- March 20 - Alfonso García Robles, Mexican diplomat and politician, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (d. 1991)
- March 24 - Joseph Barbera, American cartoonist
- March 25 - Jack Ruby, American killer of Lee Harvey Oswald (d. 1967)
- March 26 - Bernard Katz, German-born biophysicist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 2003)
- March 26 - Tennessee Williams, American playwright (d. 1983)
- March 29 - Brigitte Horney, German-born actress (d. 1988)
- March 31 - Elisabeth Grümmer, Alsatian soprano (d. 1986)

April-June


- April 5 - Jussi Björling, Swedish tenor (d. 1960)
- April 6 - Feodor Felix Konrad Lynen, German biochemist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1979)
- April 8 - Melvin Calvin, American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1997)
- April 8 - Emil Cioran, Romanian philosopher and essayist (d. 1995)
- April 11 - Stanislawa Walasiewicz, Polish-born runner(d. 1980)
- April 26 - Marianne Hoppe, German actress (d. 2002)
- May 8 - Robert Johnson, American guitarist and singer (d. 1938)
- May 11 - Phil Silvers, American actor and comedian (d. 1985)
- May 11 - Doodles Weaver, American actor and comedian (d. 1983
- May 15 - Max Frisch, Swiss author (d. 1991)
- May 17 - Lisa Fonssagrives, Swedish model (d. 1992)
- May 17 - Maureen O'Sullivan, Irish actress (d. 1998)
- May 18 - Big Joe Turner, American singer (d. 1985)
- May 20 - Gardner Fox, American writer (d. 1986)
- May 20 - Milt Gabler, American record producer (d. 2001)
- May 26 - Ben Alexander, American actor (d. 1969)
- May 27 - Hubert H. Humphrey, U.S. Vice President and Senator (d. 1978)
- May 27 - Teddy Kollek, Austrian-born mayor of Jerusalem
- May 27 - Vincent Price, American actor (d. 1993)
- May 28 - Fritz Hochwälder, Austrian author (d. 1986)
- May 31 - Maurice Allais, French economicst, Nobel Prize laureate
- June 13 - Luis Alvarez, American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1988)
- June 24 - Juan Manuel Fangio, Argentine race car driver (d. 1995)
- June 25 - William Howard Stein, American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1980)
- June 26 - Babe Didrikson Zaharias, American athlete and golfer (d. 1956)
- June 29 - Prince Bernhard of the Netherlands (d. 2004)
- June 29 - Bernard Herrmann, American composer (d. 1975)
- June 30 - Czesław Miłosz, Polish-born writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2004)

July-September


- July 4 - Mitch Miller, American singer and television personality
- July 9 - Mervyn Peake, British writer and illustrator (d. 1968)
- July 16 - Ginger Rogers, American actress (d. 1995)
- July 18 - Hume Cronyn, Canadian actor (d. 2003)
- July 21 - Marshall McLuhan, Canadian author (d. 1980)
- July 27 - Lupita Tovar, Mexican actress
- August 9 - William Alfred Fowler, American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1995)
- August 12 - Jane Wyatt, American actress
- August 14 - Shri Vethathiri Maharishi, Indian yogi
- August 17 - Mikhail Botvinnik, Russian chess player (d. 1995)
- August 23 - Betty Robinson, American athelete (d. 1999)
- August 23 - Birger Ruud, Norwegian athelete (d. 1998)
- August 27 - Kay Walsh, British actress (d. 2005)
- September 2 - Floyd Council, American musician (d. 1976)
- September 6 - Harry Danning, baseball player (d. 2004)
- September 9 - John Gorton, nineteenth Prime Minister of Australia (d. 2002)
- September 19 - William Golding, English writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1993)
- September 23 - Frank Moss, U.S. Senator from Utah (d. 2003)

October-December


- October 13 - Ashok Kumar, Indian actor (d. 2001)
- October 14 - Le Duc Tho, Vietnamese general and politician, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (d. 1990)
- October 26 - Sid Gillman, American football coach (d. 2003)
- October 30 - Ruth Hussey, American actress (d. 2005)
- November 2 - Odysseas Elytis, Greek writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1996)
- November 5 - Roy Rogers, American singer and actor (d. 1998)
- November 27 - David Merrick, American theater producer (d. 2000)
- December 3 - Nino Rota, Italian composer (d. 1979)
- December 11 - Naguib Mahfouz, Egyptian writer, Nobel Prize laureate
- December 13 - Trygve Haavelmo, Norwegian economist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1999)
- December 13 - Kenneth Patchen, American poet and painter (d. 1972)
- December 23 - Niels Kaj Jerne, English-born immunologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1994)

Unknown dates


- Yolande Beekman, French-born World War II heroine (d. 1944)

Deaths


- March 1 - Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff, Dutch chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1852)
- April 25 - Emilio Salgari, Italian writer (b. 1862)
- May 18 - Gustav Mahler, Austrian composer (b. 1860)
- May 21 - Williamina Fleming, Scottish astronomer (b. 1857)
- May 29 - William S. Gilbert, English dramatist (b. 1836)
- June 9 - Carrie Nation, American temperance activist (b. 1846)
- August 1 - Edwin Austin Abbey, American painter (b. 1852)
- August 8 - William P. Frye, U.S. Senator (b. 1830)
- September 16 - Edward Whymper, British explorer (b. 1840)
- October 14 - John Marshall Harlan, U.S. Supreme Court Justice (b. 1833)
- October 29 - Joseph Pulitzer, Hungarian-born newspaper publisher and journalist (b. 1847)
- December 10 - Joseph Dalton Hooker, English botanist (b. 1817)

Nobel Prizes


- Physics - Wilhelm Wien
- Chemistry - Maria Skłodowska-Curie
- Medicine - Allvar Gullstrand
- Literature - Count Maurice (Mooris) Polidore Marie Bernhard Maeterlinck
- Peace - Tobias Michael Carel Asser Alfred Hermann Fried

See also


- M1911
- ko:1911년 ms:1911 ja:1911年 simple:1911 th:พ.ศ. 2454

1878

1878 was a common year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar).

Events

January - April


- January - Cleopatra's Needle arrives in London
- January 9 - Humbert I becomes King of Italy
- January 5 - Battle of Shipka Pass IV
- January 17 - Battle of Plovdiv
- January 23 - Disraeli orders British fleet to Dardanelles
- January 28 - The Yale News becomes the first daily, college newspaper in the United States.
- January 31 - Turkey agrees to armistice at Adrianople
- February 2 - Greece declares war on Turkey.
- February 8 - British fleet enters Turkish waters and anchors off Constantinople - Russia threatens to occupy Constantinople but does not carry out the threat Constantinople on February 20]]
- February 11 - 1st US bicycle club, Boston Bicycle Club, forms.
- February 11 - 1st weekly Weather report published in UK
- February 18 - The Lincoln County War begins in Lincoln County, New Mexico
- February 19 - The phonograph is patented by Thomas Edison
- February 20 - Leo XIII becomes new pope
- February 24 - Anti-Russian demonstrations in Hyde Park, London
- February 28 - Mississippi State University is created by the Mississippi Legislature (under the name The Agricultural and Mechanical College of the State of Mississippi)
- March 3 - Bulgaria regained its independence from Ottoman Empire.
- March 3 - The Treaty of San Stefano concludes the Russo-Turkish War
- March 24 - The UK frigate Eurydice sinks, killing 300.
- March 25 - Russia rejects British proposal to lay San Stefano treaty before European congress
- March 27 - In anticipation with war with Russia, Disraeli mobilizes the reserves and calls up Indian troops to Malta

May - August


- May 15 - Tokyo Stock Exchange established
- June 4 - Cyprus Convention: The Ottoman Empire cedes Cyprus to the United Kingdom but retains nominal title.
- June 12-July 12 - Congress of Berlin about the Ottoman Empire
- July 13 - The Treaty of Berlin makes Serbia completely independent
- July 26 - In California, the poet and American West outlaw calling himself "Black Bart" makes his last clean getaway when he steals a safe box from a Wells Fargo stagecoach. The empty box will be found later with a taunting poem inside.

September - December


- September 3 - Over 640 die when the crowded pleasure boat Princess Alice collides with the Bywell Castle in the River Thames.
- October 1 - Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University (Virginia Tech) opens as Virginia Agricultural and Mechanical College.
- October 14 - The worlds first recorded floodlit football fixture is played at Bramall Lane in Sheffield
- October 15 - The Edison Electric Company begins operation.
- October 17 - John A. Macdonald returns to office as Prime Minister of Canada.
- November 21 - Second Afghan War commences when the British attack Ali Masjid in the Khyber Pass.
- November 29 - Kahua, the chief of Jaluits in the Marshall Islands, declares himself king of the Ralik Islands

Unknown date


- The Buchan School was founded on the Isle of Man.
- Newton Heath founded in that year. Later the team was renamed as Manchester United.
- Yellow fever in Mississippi Valley - over 13.000 dead
- US arbitration rejects Argentinean claims to Paraguay's part of Chaco region
- West Bromwich Albion F.C. play their first match.
- The Hindu founded
- Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld is the first one to navigate the Northern Sea Route, which is a shipping lane from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean along the Siberian coast.
- The Stawell Gift is run for the first time.

Births


- January 6 - Carl Sandburg, American poet and historian (d. 1967)
- January 12 - Ferenc Molnár, author (d. 1952)
- January 20 - Ruth St. Denis, dancer (d. 1968)
- January 25 - Ernst Alexanderson, Swedish-born television pioneer (d. 1975)
- February 2 - Alfréd Hajós, Hungarian swimmer and architect (d. 1955)
- February 5 - André Citroën, French automobile manufacturer (d. 1935)
- February 8 - Martin Buber, Austrian philosopher (d. 1965)
- February 14 - Hirota Koki, Prime Minister of Japan (d. 1948)
- February 26 - Emmy Destinn, Czech soprano (d. 1930)
- March 16 - Clemens August Graf von Galen, German Catholic cardinal (d. 1946)
- March 22 - Michel Théato, Luxembourg athlete (d. 1919)
- March 31 - Jack Johnson, American boxer (d. 1946)
- April 6 - Erich Mühsam, German author (d. 1934)
- April 24 - Jean Crotti, Swiss artist (d. 1958)
- April 28 - Lionel Barrymore, American actor (d. 1954)
- April 28 - Willem Mengelberg, Dutch conductor (d. 1951)
- May 10 - Gustav Stresemann, Chancellor of Germany, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (d. 1929)
- May 26 - Isadora Duncan, American dancer (d. 1927)
- May 28 - Paul Pelliot, French sinologist (d. 1945)
- June 1 - John Masefield, English poet and novelist (d. 1967)
- June 3 - Barney Oldfield, American automobile racer and pioneer (d. 1946)
- June 5 - Pancho Villa, Mexican revolutionary (d. 1923)
- July 4 - George M. Cohan, American singer, dancer, composer, actor, and writer (d. 1942)
- July 24 - Edward Plunkett, Baron Dunsany, Irish author (d. 1957)
- August 10 - Alfred Döblin, German writer (d. 1957)
- August 28 - George Whipple, American scientist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1976)
- August 31 - Frank Jarvis, American athlete (d. 1933)
- September 13 - Matilde Moisant, American pilot (d. 1964)
- September 22 - Yoshida Shigeru, Prime Minister of Japan (d. 1967)
- September 20 - Upton Sinclair, American writer (d. 1968)
- September 24 - C. F. Ramuz, Swiss writer (d. 1947)
- October 1 - Othmar Spann, Austrian philosopher and economist (d. 1950)
- October 16 - Maxey Long, American athlete (d. 1959)
- November 1 - Carlos Saavedra Lamas, Argentine politician, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (d. 1959)
- November 14 - Leopold Staff, Polish poet (d. 1957)
- November 17 - Grace Abbott, American social worker and activist (d. 1939)
- December 18 - Joseph Stalin, Soviet leader (d. 1953)
- December 25 - Louis Chevrolet, Swiss-born race driver and automobile builder (d. 1941)
- December 25 - Joseph Schenck, Russian-born film executive (d. 1961)
- December 31 - Elizabeth Arden, Canadian-born beautician and cosmetics entrepreneur (d. 1966)
- December 31 - Horacio Quiroga, Argentina's writer was born in Salto, Uruguay

Deaths


- January 9 - King Victor Emmanuel II of Italy (b. 1820)
- January 18 - Antoine César Becquerel, French scientist (b. 1788)
- February 7 - Pope Pius IX (b. 1792)
- February 11 - Gideon Welles, American politician (b. 1802)
- February 19 - Charles-Francois Daubigny, French painter (b. 1817)
- March 8 - Archduke Franz Karl of Austria (b. 1802)
- April 12 - William Marcy Tweed, American politician (b. 1823)
- April 25 - Anna Sewell, English author (b. 1820)
- May 28 - John Russell, 1st Earl Russell, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1792)
- June 6 - Robert Stirling, Scottish clergyman and inventor (b. 1790)
- June 8 - Porter Rockwell, Mormon bodyguard (b. 1815)
- June 12 - George V of Hanover (b. 1819)
- July 17 - Aleardo Aleardi, Italian poet (b. 1812)
- November 28 - Orson Hyde, American religious leader (b. 1805)
- December 10 - Henry Wells, American businessman (b. 1805)
- December 14 - Princess Alice, Grand Duchess of Hesse and by Rhine (b. 1843)
- Angelo Secchi, Italian astronomer (b. 1818) Category:1878 ko:1878년 th:พ.ศ. 2421

Coffee

Coffee is a beverage, usually served hot, prepared from the roasted seeds of the coffee plant. These seeds are usually called coffee beans. Coffee is the second most traded commodity in the world, trailing only petroleum. Coffee is one of mankind's chief sources of caffeine, a stimulant. Its potential benefits and hazards have been, and continue to be, widely studied and discussed (see caffeinism).

Etym